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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis Green Paper is the product of extensive input from interested and affected parties and coastal specialists and managers. It is not possible to list, by name, all those who have contributed to this effort. What must be made clear, however, is that the Green Paper could not have been prepared without this input and support – it has been a collective effort. The support of the Ministry and Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism is gratefully acknowledged. The British Department for International Development has not only provided generous financial support, it has also given valuable guidance and advice. Policy Committee members have provided important insight, experience and direction. The practical insight of Regional Managers has also been important. Substantial contributions to this document have also been made by a number of specialists and Government officials, who have either served on Specialist Study Teams, or Task Teams, or made individual contributions.
FOREWORDSouth Africa's coast is a rich and diverse national asset. A robust yet delicate system, the coast is a source of opportunity for many South Africans. It is the bedrock of coastal communities and is of immense strategic importance to many economic sectors including tourism, trade, mining, agriculture and fisheries. It is of the utmost importance to South Africa's broader economy that the opportunities provided by the coast are harnessed and managed in an equitable and sustainable manner. It is also both our privilege and our responsibility to preserve the integrity of the coast for current and future generations. It is for these reasons that the Ministry has initiated the formulation of a Coastal Policy. This would not have been possible without the generous funding provided by the British Department for International Development. In keeping with a sincere commitment to co-operative governance, the Ministry has appointed a Policy Committee representative of government and civil society to prepare the policy. This Coastal Policy Green Paper is the result of an extensive process of public participation and reflects the aims and interests of a broad range of stakeholders who live and work along the coast. The purpose of this document is to stimulate lively debate around issues and policy options that have been generated through the combination of specialist knowledge and stakeholder input. I urge all South Africans to participate in this debate. This Green Paper is the first step towards integrated coastal management and the first step towards sustainable coastal development. The next step, which is the formulation of a practical and strategic Coastal Policy White Paper, is dependent on your input. The coast is our asset and our heritage — we should afford it the respect and the attention it deserves. [ Top ] DR Z. PALLO JORDAN PREAMBLEThe need for an integrated Coastal Policy to manage South Africa’s dynamic and bountiful coast has long been recognised. This Coastal Policy Green Paper builds on studies and research previously undertaken by our local marine and coastal scientific community. Considerable work in the field of coastal management has also been carried out by the Department of Environmental Affairs, as well as provincial nature conservation and planning departments. This Green Paper has its roots in this earlier work, particularly that carried out by the Council for the Environment’s Committee for Coastal and Marine Systems in the late 1980s. In building on this past work, and integrating it with input from an extensive process of public participation, the Green Paper lays the foundation for a new era of coastal management in South Africa. The Coastal Management Policy Programme was initiated by the Ministry of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, in response to the recognition of the vital role that our coast can play in South Africa’s future development. Having secured funding from the British Department for International Development, the Ministry appointed a Policy Committee to prepare a draft policy. The Policy Committee is a significant partnership between Government and civil society and represents the interests of national Government, provincial Government, business, labour, community-based organisations, environmental non-governmental organisations and the sport and recreational sector. Each member has equal status and all decisions are made by consensus. The Policy Committee is made up of the following individuals:
The Policy Committee appointed a Project Management Team to conduct the day-to-day management of the programme. The Project Management Team is co-ordinated by the following independent consultants:
Regional Managers have been appointed to co-ordinate regional activities:
The Coastal Management Policy Programme has four fundamental goals. These are:
To promote meaningful public participation The programme aims to ensure that all stakeholders will have the opportunity to participate in all stages of the policy formulation process, thereby ensuring broad ownership and a commitment to the final policy. To develop a policy that has scientific integrity This policy builds on the considerable body of knowledge and understanding about coastal systems and resources that has been developed through scientific research over many years.
To promote integrated coastal management Effective coastal management requires partnerships between Government, civil society and the private sector. Integrated coastal management also refers to the need to co-ordinate and integrate the activities that take place at the coast.
[ Top ] To develop a practical policy In order to be effective, the policy must be focused and practical, addressing priority and strategic coastal issues. A practical policy should be an ongoing process that includes policy formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of results, and, where appropriate, revisions to both the policy and implementation measures. To achieve these goals it has been necessary to engage meaningfully with the scientific community, the public and all levels of Government. To date, over 70 specialists have been involved in four Specialist Studies designed to provide vital information for the policy (see Appendix 4).The Study Teams were selected by an independent panel appointed by the South African Network for Coastal and Oceanographic Research. The studies have been independently reviewed and include:
An extensive process of public participation has been the cornerstone for the development of this Green Paper. Twenty two visioning events were held around the coast in November and December 1997, involving over 800 people from more than 200 organisations. Over 40 regional meetings to discuss policy options were held between April and May 1998, involving over 500 people from more than 200 organisations. There has been ongoing consultation by Regional Managers, each of whom is in direct contact with between 400 and 800 stakeholders. Aside from public meetings, the Regional Managers have held one-on-one meetings and capacity building sessions with over 1 000 people from more than 200 organisations. Over 150 written submissions have already been received. Programme information is distributed quarterly to approximately 17 000 people through the programme newsletter "Our Coast", in the four coastal languages, which are Xhosa, Zulu, Afrikaans and English. Similar levels of public participation will be maintained throughout the remaining stages of the programme, thereby resulting in a policy that truly reflects the interests of all South Africans. There has been and will continue to be ongoing consultation with key Government officials at a national, provincial and local level, as well as with a broad range of political leaders. On behalf of the Policy Committee, I would like to extend my thanks to the Minister and his Department, as well as to the British Government’s Department for International Development, for their ongoing support and co-operation in the programme. The Policy Committee would also like to thank all those who have provided input to the preparation of this Coastal Policy Green Paper. We believe that this document should stimulate vigorous debate and look forward to your comments and further involvement in the preparation of the Coastal Policy White Paper. PROFESSOR JEFF McCARTHY KEY FINDINGS"Africa’s long and beautiful coasts and the abundance of marine resources can contribute to providing economic, food and environmental security for the continent. These coastal and marine resources, like the rest of Africa’s environmental resources, cannot continue to be exploited in a manner that does not benefit Africa and her people. This is a paradox of a people dying from hunger, starvation and poverty when they are potentially so rich and well endowed." - President Mandela, Excerpt from a message to the forthcoming meeting of the Advisory Committee on the Protection of the Sea, to be held in Cape Town in December 1998. BACKGROUNDThe Green Paper is the product of an extensive process of public participation and specialist study carried out since May 1997 through the Coastal Management Policy Programme. Workshops will be held to obtain feedback on the Green Paper. Based on this feedback and further participation, a White Paper will be prepared, setting out South Africa’s future policy on coastal management. The policy will then be implemented through appropriate institutional and legal arrangements, priority programmes and ongoing monitoring and review. The Coastal Management Policy Programme has generated wide public support for a new and innovative policy. This energy must be harnessed to develop shared responsibility for sustainable coastal development. These Key Findings outline the need for a Coastal Policy, a vision for our coast, and principles, goals and objectives for coastal management. It also presents possible institutional and legal arrangements for implementing a new Coastal Policy. Key questions are outlined for your consideration and feedback. NEED FOR A COASTAL POLICYOur coast is a rich national heritage that provides enormous benefits to the people of South Africa. It offers many opportunities for future economic and social development, particularly in under-developed areas of our country. At present, the value of coastal ecosystems as a cornerstone for development is not acknowledged in decision-making. Our valuable coastal assets, and future development opportunities, will be squandered unless we maintain the diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems. South Africa needs to invest in coastal management to realise and sustain the benefits and opportunities the coast offers. A radical new approach is needed to manage coastal resources wisely and to harness them for sustainable coastal development. A Coastal Policy is crucial in achieving this change. The Green Paper sets out a new approach to coastal management that aims to:
Realising Coastal BenefitsA Coastal Policy will enable us to optimise the benefits we obtain from the coast. The Green Paper estimates the value of all coastal goods and services in South Africa to be about R179 billion annually – equivalent to 37% of our annual Gross Domestic Product. Examples include:
In addition to these direct benefits, our coast has significant aesthetic, cultural, educational, scientific and spiritual value. It also offers future development prospects that exceed those available in most other areas of the country. Our coast provides an important basis for future economic development, poverty reduction and sustainable job creation in South Africa. Sustaining Coastal BenefitsProviding benefits to all South Africans on a sustained basis is only possible if we wisely manage the coastal ecosystems on which those benefits depend. This means managing coastal ecosystems in a way that recognises their inter-connected nature. Coastal ecosystems involve complex biological, chemical and physical inter-relationships between land and sea. The coast is a high-energy environment that is subject to constant change. These conditions give rise to a variety of landforms, plant and animal species and habitats, and to an abundance of natural resources. The coast is also the site of complex inter-relationships between humans and natural systems. Although coastal ecosystems are resilient, they are finite and vulnerable to over-use, pollution and damage. Inappropriate decisions can expose human life and property to high risks. While many activities take place at the coast, these are seldom co-ordinated, reducing overall benefits. Without effective management, many of our coastal resources will be over-used and degraded to the point where social and economic benefits can no longer be drawn from them. Our coast requires a dedicated, co-ordinated and integrated management approach to sustain the coastal ecosystems on which coastal benefits depend. Promoting Proactive and Co-operative GovernanceCurrent institutional and legal arrangements for coastal management are inefficient and fragmented, and fail to co-ordinate the many activities taking place at the coast. A proactive Coastal Policy is needed to promote harmony between sectoral policies, to strengthen institutional arrangements, to promote co-ordination and integration of planning, management and investment strategies, and to strengthen the human resource base for coastal management. The Green Paper proposes an approach to coastal management that emphasises facilitation rather than regulation. It promotes co-operative governance and public-private partnerships in an effort to encourage shared responsibility for our special coastal heritage. It also suggests mechanisms for co-ordination and integration between different sectors. To develop and implement this new approach, an investment must be made in coastal management. Only in this way can we maintain the diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems, and thereby realise and sustain the benefits and opportunities they provide. This investment will provide rich rewards to all South Africans. Failure to make such an investment will leave many coastal communities in severe poverty and will reduce options for future development. In order to develop and implement this new approach, the Green Paper outlines a proposed national vision for our coast, and principles, goals and objectives for coastal management. VISION AND PRINCIPLESThis proposed vision statement was developed after an extensive process of public participation. Based on your feedback, a final national vision statement will be prepared, discussed and agreed upon. Proposed National Vision
To realise this vision, we need to set out the principles which guide our actions, and the goals and objectives of the Coastal Policy. Principles for Coastal ManagementTo achieve the ideal of sustainable coastal development, the following principles for coastal management are proposed:
GOALS AND OBJECTIVESThe goals and objectives of the Green Paper are organised into five integrating themes. Each objective is followed by more detailed policy statements in the Green Paper. THEME A: OUR NATIONAL HERITAGE
THEME B: COASTAL PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT
THEME C: POLLUTION CONTROL AND WASTE MANAGEMENT
THEME D: NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
THEME E: GOVERNANCE AND CAPACITY BUILDING
INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL ARRANGEMENTSThe Green Paper proposes a number of options for institutional and legal arrangements to implement the policy. Your input is required as to the best model or combination of models, bearing in mind the varied characteristics and circumstances of our coastal regions and provinces. These suggestions should be seen as a point of departure for further discussion. Key elements of the institutional models are outlined in the table below. [ Top ] Institutional Arrangements
Legal ArrangementsTwo main legislative approaches are proposed to give effect to the institutional arrangements outlined above. The first approach is to use existing and pending legislation. Some key pieces of legislation are:
The alternative approach is the formulation of new coastal legislation, including the following options: Comprehensive Coastal Management ActThis would involve passing a comprehensive Act that would govern all activities in a defined coastal area. A "super coastal agency" could be required to implement such a law. Although such an arrangement has been viewed as appropriate in a number of other countries, its practicality for the current South African context is seriously questioned and it is likely to enjoy little support amongst Governmental decision-makers. A Framework Coastal Management ActThe most recent example of a Framework Act is the proposed National Environmental Management Bill. Such an approach focuses on the development of norms to govern the actions of various role-players. A Framework Coastal Management Act could be built, at least in part, around the Sea Shore Act. It could more clearly delineate the respective roles and responsibilities of national, provincial and local spheres of Government with respect to coastal areas, which at present are confusing and contradictory. Such an Act could specify coastal principles and require coastal provinces to formulate their own coastal management acts. Provincial Coastal Management Acts with or without a National Framework ActCoastal Provinces could create Provincial Coastal Management Acts to reflect their specific management requirements for the coast. These Acts could be created with or without a national Framework Coastal Management Act. Ensure that other national legislation is more responsive to coastal concerns Specific coastal principles, focus or actions could be added to various national and provincial legislation and policies. Examples include Development Tribunals in terms of the Development Facilitation Act, the National Environmental Management Bill, the new Water Act and the Planning and Development Bills of the various provinces. KEY QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSIONThe purpose of this Green Paper is to stimulate discussion and debate about the most appropriate approach for managing our coast. Your feedback is essential to the further development of the policy. In particular, feedback is needed on how these proposals address your particular circumstances and responsibilities. This section outlines some of the key questions that should guide your feedback on the document:
IntroductionWhy a Coastal Policy?The first chapter provides an introduction to this Green Paper. It provides an overview of the following topics:
OUR COAST, OUR FUTURE Our coast has immense value to the people of South Africa. It is beautiful and productive. It is a special national heritage. But few people appreciate the incredible opportunities our coast offers to improve the well-being of current and future generations. The coast provides:
Maintaining the diversity, health and productivity of our coast is central to realising and sustaining these economic and social benefits. Doing so requires an understanding of the coastal system. Our coast is:
A radical departure from current coastal management efforts is required if South Africans are to realise and sustain the goods and services and development opportunities that the coast provides. This is not a simple task. But given the potential, it is a task well worth undertaking. There is a need to promote:
Our generation must articulate a vision for the coast and establish the institutional and legal arrangements that will enable us to chart a course of sustainable coastal development. A Coastal Policy is needed to chart this course, to lead us into the 21st century. The next section explores what is meant by the phrase "sustainable coastal development". [ Top ] WHAT IS SUSTAINABLE COASTAL DEVELOPMENT? Broadly defined, the phrase sustainable development means: meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Though the concept of sustainable development is the subject of academic debate, it is widely seen as an important goal for public policy in the international and local context. Given this fact, and based on input from a wide range of interested and affected parties, including leaders in the field of coastal management in South Africa, the proposed theme and focus for this Coastal Policy is sustainable coastal development. The term is used to convey the following meaning:
Sustainable coastal development should not, however, be thought of as an "end state". Rather, it is an ideal towards which all South Africans should strive. A policy promoting sustainable coastal development means much more than simply maintaining the status quo. It is neither a "green" policy nor a "development at any cost" policy. Rather, it aims to promote the economic and social benefits linked to coastal ecosystems, in the interests of all South Africans. In summary, sustainable coastal development aims to enhance the capacity of current and future generations to realise their human potential, within the context of maintaining diverse, healthy and productive coastal ecosystems, in a manner that minimises harm to other life-forms. Public policy is needed to work towards the ideal of sustainable coastal development. The next section outlines the nature of public policy. WHAT IS PUBLIC POLICY?Simply put, public policy is a deliberate course of action, based on publicly held values. There are three main components to this definition: Firstly, "deliberate" implies a point of departure (what is the concern or issue for which policy is needed?) and an outcome (what end result is desired?). Secondly, "course of action" implies action (what needs to be done?) and actors (who needs to do it?). Thirdly, public values are central to the process of policy formulation and implementation. Public policy should therefore:
A public policy is the framework for helping society move from a point of departure (i.e., coastal issues of public concern) toward a common destination (i.e., a shared vision of the future of our coast). Coastal issues Þ Public Policy gets us to Þ Shared Vision Formulating and implementing a public policy aimed at realising the ideal of sustainable coastal development requires proactive guidance from Government. THE NEED FOR PROACTIVE GUIDANCE FROM GOVERNMENTHarnessing and sustaining the development potential of our coast will require a significant change in thinking about how to plan and manage the development process. To facilitate this change, proactive policy guidance is required from Government to assist both the public and private sectors to achieve long-term, economically efficient, socially equitable and ecologically sound coastal development. A proactive Coastal Policy is needed to promote harmony between sectoral policies, to strengthen institutional arrangements, to promote co-ordination and integration of plans and investment strategies, and to strengthen the human resource base for coastal management. A Coastal Policy is the most effective means for Government to provide leadership and guidance for sustainable coastal development. Such a policy will make it possible to, among other things:
It is vital for the Government to assume a positive and proactive leadership role in:
The benefits derived from the adoption of an holistic but strategic Coastal Policy, which addresses the needs and aspirations of the South African people, will far outweigh the difficulties and costs involved in its formulation and implementation. The result will be lasting economic, social and ecological benefits. It will also lead to additional support for related initiatives aimed at developing more equitable and sustainable forms of national, provincial and local development.
In order to prepare a Coastal Policy that promotes sustainable coastal development, it is essential to understand the nature of the coast, its value, and the nature of coastal management. Part A of this document explores these topics. It is also imperative to understand the characteristics of South Africa’s coast, and to reflect on the issues of concern to coastal communities and interested and affected parties. Part B provides an overview of these topics. [ Top ] Section AManaging the CoastChapter 1What is the Coast?This chapter explores the nature of the coast and answers the following two questions:
INTRODUCTIONIn order to formulate a Coastal Policy, a common understanding of the coastal system needs to be developed. In particular, its boundaries need to be defined and the components of the coastal system identified. WHAT ARE THE BOUNDARIES OF OUR COAST? In essence, our coast is made up of the land that is affected by being near to the sea and the sea that is affected by being near to the land. Our coast is thus a distinct but limited spatial area that gets its character mainly from the direct interaction between land and sea. Surrounding this area of direct interaction are areas of indirect influence, extending from inland mountain catchment areas to the Exclusive Economic Zone and beyond. Our coast is thus an area with a landward and a seaward boundary that includes:
Defining coastal boundaries is a challenge faced by all countries developing and implementing coastal management programmes. Only a few countries define coastal boundaries uniformly throughout the nation (see Table 1). Instead, national coastal policies often provide broad guidelines under which provinces and districts define specific coastal boundaries, depending on their management goals. For example, regulatory programmes usually define a narrow coastal zone within which to apply permit procedures, and a larger area for planning purposes. It is generally accepted that multiple definitions of the coast should be used to fulfil different tasks, at different spatial and time scales. Table 1: Landward and Seaward Boundaries
(Based on Cicin-Sain and Knecht 1998) In South Africa, a range of boundaries is applicable to coastal management. For example, in the mid-1980s, an effort was made to introduce a nation-wide permitting process for development proposals within 1 000 metres of the high water mark. This effort was subsequently withdrawn because it proved to be impractical and ineffective. The Sea Shore Act states that the State President "owns" the sea within territorial waters and the sea-shore (between the low and high water marks) on behalf of the people of South Africa. A number of other boundary definitions, prescribed in various conventions, laws, policies and management practices, are highlighted in Figure 2.
Note: Some of these boundary definitions are open to different interpretations. One of the major challenges faced in coastal management relates to the overlap between administrative boundaries (e.g., local authority jurisdictions) and legislative boundaries (e.g., the Sea Shore Act). This overlap is made worse by the fact that such boundaries do not coincide with those of coastal ecosystems. For example, fish do not stay within national and provincial borders, and inland activities affect water quality in rivers that flow into estuaries and out to sea. The current trend is to manage the coast on the basis of "issue-by-issue" boundary definitions. So the boundaries will change, depending on what the actual issue is. For example, the boundary relevant to managing mussel harvesting is narrow, mostly in the inter-tidal area. Maintaining water quality in an estuary, however, requires management of an area from an inland mountain catchment down to the sea. Controlling development in sensitive dune areas may require permit approval based on a defined "set-back" line, say 1 000m from the high water mark. These examples illustrate how the relevant management areas and associated boundaries vary depending on the nature of the issues. For the purposes of this Green Paper, the boundaries of the coast are seen to extend as far landwards, and as far seawards, as is necessary for effective coastal management. The final Coastal Policy will need to provide clarity on how the coast should be defined for dealing with different issues.
[ Top ] Given this broad definition, the next section outlines the main components of the coast. WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS OF OUR COAST? People are attracted to our coast because of the many different opportunities it offers through its rich natural resources, beauty and economic potential. Realising and sustaining these benefits and opportunities requires us to understand and manage the coast as a complex, dynamic and inter-connected system. Our coast can be thought of as:
How do these components of the coast relate to one another? Simply put, most of the social and economic components of the coastal system are dependent on maintaining the diversity, health and productivity of the biophysical component. Figure 3 outlines these components of the coast. The coast can also be thought of in terms of the range of benefits it provides to human users. Coastal processes and ecosystems (including the flows of energy, materials, nutrients and water that sustain coastal ecosystems) generate a range of goods and services (including food, shelter, property with sea-views and protection from storms). These goods and services provide direct and indirect benefits to human users who live, work and relax at the coast. Coastal resources can be defined as natural and human-produced goods and services that are either dependent on the coast for their existence or whose value is considerably enhanced by their location at the coast. For example, a beachfront holiday resort is located at the coast. This location is valuable because visitors enjoy benefits from easy access to the beach. Activities in the area around such a resort can affect these benefits. Activities far out to sea, literally out of sight of land, such as an oil-spill disaster, can also affect these benefits. Activities far inland, out of sight of the sea, such as poor farming practices in a mountain catchment area, can result in silted rivers and damaged river mouths. Our coast supports multiple forms of use by many different users. Different user groups can affect each other directly. For example, surfers, bathers and shore anglers may compete for space on the beach and in the surf zone. Coastal users can also affect one another indirectly through their impact on the ability of coastal ecosystems to sustain the flow of goods and services. For example, a bridge across a river that restricts water flow may alter the ability of an estuary to function effectively as a nursery for marine fish, thereby negatively affecting fish stocks and commercial fishing industries. It is vital to recognise that human activities impact on coastal processes and ecosystems and consequently affect the flow of goods and services. To sustain the flow of goods and services, the diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems must be maintained. All components of the coast — biophysical, social and economic — must be managed on a co-ordinated and integrated basis. The coast must be managed as a system. The Coastal System The coastal system can be divided into the following interlinked components:
These components of the coastal system do not exist in isolation from each other. Physical processes interact with plants and animals to form distinct ecosystems, which fulfil various functions and provides goods and services to other users. User activities affect the ability of coastal ecosystems to continue providing goods and services to other users. It is for this reason that the conflict often arises. Consequently, the coast must be managed as a system if we are to realise and sustain the tremendous benefits and development opportunities it provides. This chapter has examined the nature of the coast – its boundaries and main components. The next chapter explores the value of the goods and services provided by coastal ecosystems. Chapter 2What is the Value of our Coast?This chapter provides an estimate of the value of coastal goods and services. It explores the following topics:
INTRODUCTIONThis chapter summarises the benefits provided by the coast and attempts to place a monetary value on the services provided by coastal ecosystems. Since many ecosystem services are not bought and sold in commercial markets, and are not given monetary values like other economic services and manufactured capital, they are often ignored in decision-making. The purpose of this valuation is to provide a conservative estimate of the possible order of magnitude of the value of coastal services, in a form that can be compared with other, more familiar monetary values. Please note that the values presented here are informed but speculative estimates. Such estimates are strongly contested by some people. At the very least, this valuation highlights the importance of coastal services to the South African economy, and draws attention to the enormous benefits South Africans derive from coastal ecosystems. The obvious and overwhelming conclusion drawn from this valuation is that coastal management efforts are needed to sustain the flow of coastal services in the interests of current and future generations. Calculating the Value of our Coastal Services Boundary definition: For the purpose of this valuation, the coast is defined as the region 60 km from the high water mark to the continental shelf (see Figure 2). Available statistics: As far as possible, local statistics were used in this valuation. There are, however, many gaps in available knowledge, particularly with regard to the value of coastal services that are not bought or sold. In a number of such instances, average estimates based on international data were used to provide a more complete picture. A conservative estimate: The valuation is a conservative estimate, because large gaps in available information made it impossible to value numerous coastal ecosystem services. Illustrative purpose: Many of the values are speculative and serve primarily to illustrate the possible order of magnitude of the value of South Africa’s coastal services. The next section explores the services that the coast provides. THE SUPPLY OF COASTAL SERVICESOur coast is made up of a wide variety of ecosystems. They are the "factories" providing benefits to coastal communities and South Africa as a whole. A distinction can be made between:
The next section provides an estimate of the value of the direct and indirect benefits provided by coastal services. THE VALUE OF OUR COASTAL SERVICESHuman activities along the coast are sustained by the services provided by coastal ecosystems. The value of coastal ecosystems in meeting basic needs and improving the welfare of South Africans is enormous. The values presented here do not reflect the intangible benefits many people derive from the coast as a place of spiritual significance, for renewal, peace and relaxation. In addition, the coast provides many educational, scientific and cultural services, the financial value of which is not easy to estimate. But there is general recognition that our coast plays an important role in providing such services and that we would be much poorer without them. [ Top ] The Total Value of our Coastal Services The total value of coastal ecosystem services is conservatively estimated to be about R179 billion per year, which is equivalent to about 37% of South Africa’s Gross Domestic Product (R480 billion). This amount is made up of services in the following areas:
These high figures show that the benefits gained from the coast make an enormous contribution to the people of South Africa, and provide the cornerstone for the economic development and well-being of coastal communities. The Value of Direct Benefits The value of direct benefits provided by coastal ecosystems is estimated to be at least R44 billion per year, as outlined in Table 2. The Value of Indirect Benefits The value of indirect benefits provided by coastal ecosystems is estimated to be at least R134 billion per year, as outlined in Table 3. Table 2: Estimated Value of Direct Benefits Provided by Coastal Ecosystems
Table 3: Estimated Value of Indirect Benefits Provided by Coastal Ecosystems
This section has looked at the value of services provided by coastal ecosystems. The next section goes on to explore the demand for these services. THE DEMAND FOR COASTAL SERVICESKey characteristics of the South African coast include its relatively high concentration of population, particularly on the east coast, its expanding coastal cities and the diversity of economic activities. The demand for coastal services is already intense and is growing rapidly. In coastal cities there is high demand for a wide range of coastal services, especially where industry, high-density residential areas, commercial centres and harbours are located. In less developed coastal regions, there is a relatively lower level of demand for a much narrower range of services. But the pressure on particular resources can be very intense in some rural areas, such as subsistence harvesting of mussels or property development around estuaries. In both the urban and rural context, many different services are frequently demanded from the same coastal ecosystem. The intensity and diversity of demands placed on coastal ecosystems will continue to increase as the South African population grows and more people move to the coast. The challenge is to ensure that we optimise these benefits, both now and into the future. REALISING COASTAL BENEFITSCoastal ecosystems are capable of sustaining more than one economic activity at the same time. For example, Cape Town’s Victoria & Alfred Waterfront supports an active port, recreational boating, and a range of shopping and recreational activities for local and international visitors. Multiple use of coastal ecosystems can provide more benefits than a single use, which may exclude other sustainable activities. We must maintain the diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems if we are to realise and sustain these benefits. If we effectively manage coastal ecosystems, our coast will provide the foundation for meeting basic needs and improving the quality of life of millions of South Africans. The last two chapters have considered the nature of the coast and explored the value of coastal services. The next chapter focuses on the subject of coastal management. [ Top ]
Chapter 3What is Coastal Management?This chapter explores the nature and role of coastal management, and covers the following topics:
INTRODUCTION The last chapter showed that there is a growing demand for the services provided by coastal ecosystems. The main task of coastal management relates to the need to match the demand for coastal services with the supply of such services. MATCHING DEMAND AND SUPPLY Our coast is a multiple-use system with a variety of users benefiting from the many available services. Using an ecosystem for one use only is likely to limit the overall benefits to the South African economy. Coastal resources are often used in this narrow way, however, and this situation is made worse by fragmented and uncoordinated management. As a consequence, the demand for coastal services is often greater than the capacity of coastal ecosystems to supply such services. This situation is likely to result in coastal resources being over-exploited or damaged. Negative impacts result as demands are met by uncontrolled withdrawal of services. Coastal ecosystems then become degraded, reducing their ability to sustain the flow of services. For example:
As the population grows and the demand for coastal services increases, these impacts are likely to have a negative effect on the supply of coastal services and thus the overall benefits to users. In a multiple-use system, it is not wise to make decisions on the basis of the benefits gained by a single user, when other potential users could also be gaining. The inter-dependence between users and uses of coastal services requires a dedicated, co-ordinated and integrated approach to coastal management. Such an approach will help to maintain the health of coastal ecosystems and the flow of services upon which coastal communities depend. It is only in this way that the full potential of coastal ecosystems will be realised and sustained.
The next section explores the concept of integrated coastal management. TOWARDS INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENTA recent United Nations report defines coastal management as:
A continuous and dynamic process that unites Government and
the community, science and management, sectoral and public interests in preparing and
implementing an integrated plan for the protection and development of coastal ecosystems
and resources.
… to improve the quality of life of human communities
which depend on coastal resources, while maintaining the biological diversity and
productivity of coastal ecosystems.
Integrated coastal management thus involves a range of planning, management and support activities that must be co-ordinated in order to address issues of real concern. The process of coastal management involves policy formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluating the results, and, where appropriate, revising both the policy and implementation measures to ensure that the issues of concern are addressed. [ Top ] Table 4: Types of Integration Required in Coastal Management
Developing an integrated coastal management approach is not an easy task, and needs to be worked towards, progressively, over time. Such an approach is particularly difficult to initiate in the context of strongly entrenched sectoral management practices. Nonetheless, if we are to sustain the benefits provided by coastal ecosystems, there is a need to work towards integrated coastal management. First, attention needs to be drawn to the subject of coastal management. Then, awareness needs to be built around the subject. Dialogue needs to be fostered amongst the various role-players. Co-operation can then be promoted, followed by co-ordination of activities. Finally, integration can be realised.
The last three chapters have provided an introduction to the subject of coastal management. They have addressed the following questions: What is the coast?; What is the value of the coast?; and What is coastal management? This chapter has highlighted the challenge of matching supply and demand. It has drawn attention to the need to promote a dedicated, co-ordinated and ultimately integrated approach to coastal management. Doing so, however, will require a good understanding of the characteristics of our coast and the issues of concern. Part B of this document provides an overview of the South African coast. It also describes the coastal regions in more detail, and outlines issues identified through this programme to date. Section BThe South African CoastChapter 4Our Coast in ContextThis chapter gives a brief overview of coastal management experience in other countries, and looks at:
INTRODUCTION This chapter briefly looks at the international context for coastal management and draws particular attention to the African context. THE INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT Two-thirds of the world’s population live at or near the coast. By the year 2030, three-quarters of the world’s population will be living at the coast. Each year, the world’s coastal ecosystems provide about R70 billion to the global economy. The coast is a major generator of global economic benefits and opportunities, but is subject to intense and growing pressure. As long as people have lived at the coast and used its resources, there has been some form of coastal management. Traditional societies that depend on coastal resources have had elaborate management systems that have often sustained coastal communities and resources for generations. But in many societies, particularly in more recent times, coastal management efforts have not been able to sustain the benefits that the coast provides. The term "coastal management" came into common use with the implementation of the United States Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972. The Act recognised that a sectoral management approach, focusing on individual resources such as fisheries, or activities such as transport, was not working. A new coastal management approach was needed. The Act provided coastal states with incentives to prepare and implement integrated plans focused on selected issues of national and local significance. Since then, the concept of coastal management has been refined and it has been applied to many different situations in countries around the world. Changes in Coastal Management since the 1970s
Many international treaties and regional agreements have addressed the subject of coastal management in the last few decades. South Africa is a party to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), which are the major international frameworks guiding nations in governing coasts. The Law of the Sea Convention establishes the rights and duties of nations within the 200 nautical mile Exclusive Economic Zone. In 1992, UNCED built on this legislative framework, providing further guidance to nations by emphasising the need for sustainable development and integrated management of the coast. There are now about 150 integrated coastal management efforts in over 60 coastal states around the world. Increasingly, developing countries are using integrated coastal management as a distinct management approach to address coastal challenges.
SOUTH AFRICA IN THE AFRICAN CONTEXT The coast makes an enormous contribution to the economic and social well-being of people in Africa. It contributes over R4 000 billion to the African economy. Thirty eight of continental Africa’s 53 independent states are coastal states, and about 18% of Africa’s population live within 60km of the coast. South Africa’s coast supports about 30% of its population, and our coast has one of the highest coastal population densities in Africa about 81/km2, compared to the average African density of 55/km2. In 1985, western Indian Ocean nations signed the Eastern African Regional Seas Action Plan and a number of protocols to promote regional co-operation in order to improve management of the marine and coastal environment. In 1993, ministers from throughout Eastern Africa convened in Arusha, Tanzania, and signed a resolution stating their commitment to sustainable coastal development and management. In 1996, a second ministerial meeting was held in the Seychelles. Participants assessed their own progress in meeting the goals set forth in the Arusha resolution, re-confirmed their commitment to coastal management, and developed an agenda for progress over the next three years. For the first time, South Africa participated in this regional forum. These ministerial meetings resulted in several regional integrated coastal management activities and a number of workshops. More recently, in July 1998, South Africa participated in a pan-African conference on sustainable integrated coastal management. The conference was held in Maputo and is part of the ongoing region-wide effort to promote better coastal management. A consistent and key recommendation which emerged from these meetings and workshops is the need for countries to develop a national policy for integrated coastal management. Currently, several African nations — Mozambique, Tanzania and South Africa — are undertaking national coastal policy initiatives. Our Coastal Policy initiative has much to learn from, and hopefully contribute to, the experiences elsewhere in Africa and beyond. Effective integrated coastal management requires a sound understanding of the characteristics of the South African coast. The next chapter presents an overview of our coast. [ Top ] Chapter 5An Overview of our CoastThis chapter provides an overview of South Africa’s coast in terms of the following factors:
INTRODUCTION Our coast extends for about 3 000 km from the border of Namibia to Mozambique. It links the east and west coasts of Africa and connects our continent to the Indian, Atlantic and vast Southern Oceans. Historically, it is the place where the original inhabitants first met the European settlers and were displaced by them. To this day, our coast is a place to draw from the riches of the sea and conduct trade with distant lands, as well as being a special place to live, work and relax. Our coast is very diverse, in terms of a number of factors – its biophysical setting, natural resources, social setting, human settlement patterns, and its economic, institutional and legal setting. This chapter outlines the main characteristics of each of these factors. THE BIOPHYSICAL SETTING The character of our coast is shaped by its location at the southern tip of Africa. This setting determines the climatological, geological, oceanographic, hydrological and biological character of our coast.
Climate, currents and sediment movement Large-scale atmospheric systems over southern Africa and the Atlantic, Indian and Southern Oceans control the patterns of weather and climate. The west coast is characterised by southerly winds and low rainfall. The south-west coast is subject to southerly winds in summer and rain-bearing westerly winds in winter. In contrast, the east coast experiences good rainfall, mostly in summer. Rainfall generally increases along the east coast as one moves north from East London to Mozambique (800 to 1 300 mm). Along the west coast, rainfall decreases as one moves north from Cape Town to Namibia (greater than 700 mm to less than 100 mm). South coast rainfall is moderate and variable (400 to 1 000 mm), with a maximum in the Garden Route area which experiences year-round rainfall (see Figure 4). The oceanic setting of South Africa is strongly influenced by the Agulhas Current and the Benguela Current System (see Figure 5). The eastern shores are washed by the warm, nutrient-poor waters of the Agulhas Current that flows south from tropical latitudes off Mozambique and Madagascar. In contrast, the western shores are washed by cold, nutrient-rich waters drawn up (referred to as upwelling) from deeper layers in the sea. This upwelling results from southerly winds blowing parallel to the coastline. These waters support highly productive marine systems and are the centre of South Africa’s fishing industry. The east-west contrast is seen in the 7oC difference between the average annual temperature of Port Nolloth and Durban – both located at similar latitudes. The cold coastal waters do not evaporate easily because of the large-scale stable climatic weather patterns, which result in the west coast receiving very little rainfall. Average annual rainfall at Port Nolloth (60 mm) is a tiny fraction of that at Durban (1 100 mm). Along the south coast, upwelling is patchy and occurs irregularly under easterly winds. The Agulhas Current follows the edge of the continental shelf and is situated far offshore of the south coast. Coastal waters in this region alternate between warm Agulhas Current water and cold upwelled water. Most of our coast has a moderate (1-2 m) to high (2-3 m) wave energy environment, and experiences a predominantly south-westerly swell direction. The result is an overall northwards drift along the shores of both the west and east coasts. This drift transports between one and two million tons of sediment past any given point on either coast each year. About 1 700 km of our coast is made up of sandy beaches and 1 300 km are either rocky or mixed rock and sand shores.
Rivers, Estuaries and Islands Our coast is also strongly influenced by rivers that bring
water, sediments, nutrients and pollutants to the coast. Along the east coast, short,
strong and fast-flowing rivers drain the steep slopes. East of Port Elizabeth, these
rivers carry large silt loads, in excess of 400 tons of sediment per km2 per year. West of
Port Elizabeth, most rivers drain sandstone catchments and carry much smaller silt loads,
typically about 150 tons per km2 per year (note that some larger catchments, such as the
Sundays and Gamtoos, have sediment yields similar to those of KwaZulu-Natal). Along the
west coast, the low rainfall and flat land result in few rivers that flow all year round.
The largest river, the Orange, drains half of the country, including the mining and
industrial heartland of the Gauteng area, and enters the sea at the border of Namibia.
There are no large rivers flowing south into South Africa from neighbouring states. But
there are a few large rivers that flow from South Africa to enter the sea in Mozambique
(e.g., Nkomati and Limpopo).
Table 5: South Africa’s Estuaries
(After Heydorn 1989) The total area of estuaries in South Africa is about 600 km2, of which about 400 km2 is along the 570 km KwaZulu-Natal coast. Variations in climate, topography and catchment geology give rise to a wide variety of estuary types in South Africa. South Africa has jurisdiction over 21 islands. Most of the islands occur off the west coast near Saldanha and in False Bay, with a cluster of six islands in the vicinity of Port Elizabeth. Two islands, Marion and Prince Edward Islands, are some 2 000 km south of Cape Town. The general physical setting of South Africa results in striking differences in the nature of the east, south and west coasts, and gives rise to a rich and varied set of natural resources. [ Top ]
Flora and fauna The nature of the predominant climatic systems, sea surface temperature, geographic location and topography directly affect a region’s temperature, humidity and rainfall. These physical factors influence the distribution of plants and animals along the coast. Flora and fauna have been classified, according to their similarities, into three biogeographical regions – the cool temperate region on the west coast, the warm temperate south coast between Cape Point and East London and the sub-tropical east coast which extends up to Mozambique. In broad terms, plants and animals are distributed according to the distinctive physical characteristics of the three biogeographic regions. Figure 6 shows the gradual transition from the dry succulent Karoo on the west coast to the moist coastal bushveld on the east coast. The west coast marine environment is characterised by cold upwelling waters and has low species diversity and large populations of some species. For example, the seal colony at Kleinsee is reported to be
the largest mainland seal colony in the world. Desert conditions along this section of
coast result in sandy nutrient-poor soils and sparse succulent Karoo vegetation. The east coast becomes increasingly warm, humid and tropical northwards, and is characterised in both the marine and land environments by increasing species diversity and smaller populations. The Hibiscus Coast has the highest number of endemic tree species along the coast. The northern east coast has over 70% of the total South African coastal dune population of vertebrate species (amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals).This region supports a range of savannah and coastal bushveld, with an increasing amount of sub-tropical vegetation towards Mozambique.
NATURAL RESOURCES Key natural resources provided by our coast include: Fisheries. Broadly speaking, the west coast and the western parts of the south coast are the centre of the commercial fisheries, with catches of hake, pilchard, anchovy, lobster and abalone. On the east coast, line-fishing (both commercial and recreational) is more important, and a wider range of species is harvested. In northern KwaZulu-Natal and on the Wild Coast, there is subsistence harvesting of coastal resources. Agriculture. Our coast provides significant opportunities for agriculture, with generally poor but variable soils on the west coast and rich soils on the east coast. The coast also provides some potential for mariculture (i.e., "farming" marine organisms such as fish, prawns or abalone). Our coastal waters have good water quality and nutrient supply, but there are a limited number of sheltered bays for large-scale activities in the sea. Land-based mariculture offers potential, particularly in the south-western Cape. But marketing some of the products has proved to be challenging in the past. Mineral resources. Our coast offers significant mineral resources. Along northern parts of the west coast, diamonds are mined on the sea-shore and sea-bed. On the east coast, and to a lesser extent along the west coast, heavy minerals, particularly titanium and zirconium, are extracted from beach and dune sands. Further deposits exist, including deposits along the Wild Coast. Other important minerals include offshore deposits of oil and gas, most notably giving rise to the Mossgas operation on the south coast. Smaller scale mining includes the extraction of salt from seawater and the mining of sand and pebbles for construction material or cement production. Development opportunities. There are also tremendous development prospects for coastal tourism and recreational activities. The marketability of our coast is based on its scenic beauty, diversity and natural character, coupled with our mild climate, rich diversity of cultures and traditions and generally good infrastructure. The biophysical characteristics and natural resources of our coast underpin a rich and varied social setting, with noteworthy regional differences in human settlement patterns, and economic, institutional and legal characteristics, as shown in Figure 7. THE SOCIAL SETTING
Historical Context The social setting of our coast can be understood in terms of the recent history of southern Africa. In the nineteenth century, colonial settlement of people from Europe, and the associated settlement of people from Asia, led to expanding cities at Durban, East London, Port Elizabeth and Cape Town. The middle and late twentieth century was characterised by apartheid, a policy that explicitly denied economic resources and social services to "homeland" regions and other designated black areas, leaving these regions undeveloped, with inadequate infrastructure. The economic centre of the country was concentrated in the interior, with the coastal cities playing a supportive role to the industrial and political centre of Gauteng. For the first time in our history, the transition to a democratic Government in 1994 allowed all South Africans to enjoy equal rights of access to and enjoyment of the coast. Our coast is divided into four provinces –Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal. But much of the present social character of the coast can be related to previous political divisions: the white-governed Cape Province and Natal Province and the black homeland areas of Ciskei, Transkei and KwaZulu.
Population and Culture At present, it is estimated that 30% of South Africa’s population live within 60km of the coast. According to available 1996 census data, the South African population is about 38 million people. About 20% live in KwaZulu-Natal, 15.5% in the Eastern Cape, 11% in the Western Cape and 2% in the Northern Cape. The coastal population can be divided into four main language groups. The west coast is mainly Afrikaans speaking. The Eastern Cape is mainly Xhosa speaking. And KwaZulu-Natal is mainly Zulu speaking. English is commonly spoken along the coast, particularly in urban centres. This simple breakdown does not convey the rich diversity of cultures and traditions amongst coastal communities. Many of our coastal towns and cities are characterised by a variety of language and cultural backgrounds. HUMAN SETTLEMENT Settlement patterns reflect the spatial patterns of our society and economy. Largely determined by colonialism and apartheid, the spatial structure of our coast shows clear regional differences.
[ Top ] Cities and Towns The four coastal cities of Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London and Durban contain the major concentrations of coastal population, together over 6 million people. All four cities are experiencing rapid population growth and their populations are likely to double in the next 25 to 30 years. Population density is likely to increase, and urban areas will continue to expand along the coast as well as inland, particularly around Cape Town and Durban. These cities serve vast hinterlands and, with the exception of Durban, are far removed from the hub of economic activity in Gauteng. Other emerging coastal cities include Saldanha Bay and Richards Bay. At the core of both of these developing cities is a specialised, export-based, deep-water port. Richards Bay is a growing urban centre of some 40 000 people on the KwaZulu-Natal north coast. Saldanha is considerably smaller, with about 17 000 people, on the west coast.
Settlement Patterns Apart from these coastal cities, the coast is sparsely settled, particularly on the west coast. But during holiday seasons there is an influx of people to the coast and the population of coastal towns rises dramatically. Population density is highest on the KwaZulu-Natal coast. Many coastal towns serve as holiday, tourism and recreational destinations, and home-owners are absent most of the time. A number of these towns evolved in association with fishing, agriculture or mining activities. But most of our coast can be characterised as rural. The percentage of the population living in rural areas in the coastal provinces is as follows: Eastern Cape 63%, KwaZulu-Natal 61%, Northern Cape 30%, and Western Cape 10%. The rural settlements include farmsteads associated with commercial agriculture, and traditional housing in former homeland areas of the Transkei, Ciskei and KwaZulu where communities live in a subsistence economy. The boom in the outdoor recreation and tourism markets has led to intense interest in the development potential of the coast, including regions previously marginalised under apartheid. This trend needs to be seen in the light of the growth of coastal cities, which includes people relocating from the interior to coastal cities such as Cape Town. The social and human settlement characteristics of our coast are closely related to the economic characteristics. THE ECONOMIC SETTING Our coast is characterised by marked differences in the levels of economic activity, poverty and inequality. Coastal resources, however, provide considerable economic development potential.
Economic Activity, Poverty and Inequality Our coastal regions display distinct differences in Gross Geographic Product (GGP) per person (see Figure 9). GGP is a measure of economic activity in an area. Broadly speaking, GGP per person is highest, more than R16 000 per year, in and around Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London, Durban and Richards Bay. The lowest GGP per person, less than R200 per person per year, is found on the southern coast, and in the rural areas of the Eastern Cape and northern KwaZulu-Natal provinces. South Africans have an average annual income per person of R7 200. Income per person varies between the coastal provinces: Western Cape R13 490, Northern Cape R9 971, KwaZulu-Natal R6 157 and Eastern Cape R4 151. In international terms, South Africa can be classified as an "upper-middle-income country" in terms of income per person. But most households live in poverty or are vulnerable to becoming poor. Many households have inadequate access to education, health care, energy and clean water. The distribution of wealth and income in South Africa is amongst the most unequal in the world. Various indicators can be used to measure poverty and inequality. According to the Human Development Index (HDI), the Western Cape, as well as the white and Indian population groups in South Africa as a whole, fall within the HDI range equivalent to "high human development". The HDI for the other coastal provinces, and the coloured and African population groups as a whole, as well as the HDI for South Africa as a whole, fall within the "medium human development" range. Based on a "poverty line" of a monthly household expenditure level of R353 per adult, the extent and distribution of poverty in South Africa is reflected in the following:
Coastal Resources and Development Opportunities These few examples highlight the extent to which the stimulation of economic activity, poverty reduction and sustainable job creation are fundamental challenges facing South Africa. Few realise the extent to which the coast can contribute to meeting these challenges. For example, coastal resources are important for: Subsistence activities. Many South Africans are dependent on the coast for their subsistence. Activities include line-fishing, collection of inter-tidal organisms, beach and seine netting and agricultural practices. The value of subsistence activities is difficult to determine because of the limited information available. In addition, it is difficult to place a value on coastal resources used for subsistence purposes. For example, what value does a fish have to the family it feeds, when the family has no other source of food? Preliminary indications are that at least 3.6 million South Africans depend to a large degree on the food obtained from the coast through subsistence activities. The total value of these activities is at least R1.1 billion annually. Trade. South Africa is engaging in trade relations with many countries in an increasingly globalised economy. Our coastal cities are a gateway to world trade through shipping and harbours. Over R140 billion of cargo is transported through South Africa’s ports each year, generating over R4.2 billion in annual revenue. Most harbour traffic (75-80% by volume) goes through the ports of Durban and Richards Bay. Tourism, recreation and leisure. These activities have grown into a global growth industry, and our coast has particular value in this regard. Together they generate more than R15.2 billion, with over 20 million international and domestic visitors each year. Over 40 different recreational activities take place at the coast. The Gunston 500 surfing competition/Ocean Action event attracts over 800 000 visitors and generates over R220 million for local Durban businesses in only 10 days. There are about 100 000 SCUBA divers active on our coast, in an activity worth about R36 million annually. Commercial and recreational fishing. The South African commercial fishing industry is worth about R1.7 billion annually. The Benguela fisheries of the west coast support the vast bulk of the industry, but smaller commercial fisheries are also located on the south and east coasts. The industry directly employs between 26 000 and 27 000 people. An additional 60 000 people are employed in related sectors that are exclusively or partly dependent on the fishing industry as a market for the supply of stores, equipment and services. Recreational fishing attracts over 600 000 enthusiasts, employs over 131 000 people and generates over R1.3 billion in revenue each year. This activity is especially popular on the KwaZulu-Natal coast. Development opportunities. Many other economic benefits are derived from our coast, and future development prospects are enormous. For example, in recognition of current and future economic opportunities, and in response to the marked inequalities along the coast, eight of ten current Spatial Development Initiatives (SDIs) are linked to the coast. These multi-billion-rand coastal development proposals have an anticipated total value of R90 billion and a projected employment of 90 000 people. THE LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL SETTING The legal and institutional setting can be characterised as one of change and opportunity. There is also considerable variability between coastal regions and provinces. Urgent attention needs to be given to clarifying roles and responsibilities across different spheres of government and between different agencies. [ Top ]
Change and Opportunity The new Constitution and a growing awareness of the need for sustainable coastal development provide a positive climate for promoting effective coastal management in the interests of all South Africans. There are now four coastal provinces, instead of the previous two provinces and the former Transkei, Ciskei and KwaZulu "homelands". The legal and institutional challenges associated with this change are profound and are likely to be felt for a considerable time to come. Other important changes include those relating to the Constitution, and laws relating to planning, natural resource management (including living marine resources and water) and environmental management more generally. This state of change provides exciting opportunities for repositioning coastal management within a changed legal and institutional setting.
Roles and Responsibilities The current legal context for coastal management is provided by the Constitution and a wide range of national Acts, including the Sea Shore Act, the Environment Conservation Act and the Development Facilitation Act, as well as other legislation relating to land-use planning, protected areas, natural resource management and pollution control. A large number of laws and regulations also exists at provincial and local levels to control coastal development and manage coastal resources. At present, legislation affecting coastal management is fragmented and is administered by a variety of different Government departments and agencies. It needs to be rationalised and co-ordinated. Various coast-related initiatives, planning exercises and policy processes are taking place at all levels, but are not well co-ordinated. The Constitution defines concurrent powers with respect to a number of environmental, planning and development functions, as well as certain extended municipal powers. These provisions have the potential to lead to further fragmentation of coastal management. But the Constitution also emphasises the need for co-operative Government, and the need to devolve management functions to the lowest sphere of Government able to undertake them. The roles and responsibilities of different spheres of Government with respect to coastal management are still in the process of being clarified. At present, there is a high degree of fragmentation, with different spheres responsible for various activities. The lack of a co-ordinating body to provide direction and guide coastal management efforts has resulted in administrative confusion and inefficiency, duplication of efforts, gaps in management and an uncoordinated approach. In general, Government departments do not deal with coastal management directly, nor do they pay particular attention to the coast. But their activities nonetheless influence the coast. National sphere of Government. The Coastal Management sub-directorate of the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) has a number of responsibilities relating to policy formulation, environmental education, co-ordination of management activities, and international conventions. In practice, the sub-directorate plays a largely advisory role. Coastal functions are also carried out by other units of the DEAT, by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, the Department of Land Affairs and the Department of Minerals and Energy. In general, national departments have tended not to consider coastal management to be part of their responsibilities, particularly in the absence of clear policy guidelines. Provincial sphere of Government. Much coastal management is carried out through provincial planning, environment and nature conservation departments. Resources are generally seen to be inadequate, particularly for environmental management functions that are increasing in scope. Planning functions are affected by confusion around rapidly changing legislation and structures, which are likely to vary between provinces. These departments are also not able to undertake effective co-ordination with other departments involved with aspects of coastal management. Local sphere of Government. At the level of local authorities, institutional arrangements are still in a state of change. New planning procedures are in the process of being implemented or developed. The application of these procedures will significantly influence the coast and coastal management. There is a widespread lack of resources and skills for coastal management, particularly by District or Regional Councils in rural areas. This means that proactive coastal management efforts are especially difficult to initiate. In attempts to boost their capacity, some local authorities co-operate with nature conservation agencies and are involved in co-management initiatives with community groups. This co-operation indicates a positive direction for the future. This chapter has provided a brief overview of the South African coast. For more information about the regions of our coast, you are referred to Chapter 6, which presents summaries of regional characteristics and issues. Chapter 6Regional Characteristics and IssuesThis chapter describes the main characteristics of South Africa’s coastal regions, which fall into the following provinces:
INTRODUCTION Thirteen coastal regions have been defined for the purposes of this programme (See Figure 10). The boundaries were identified after an extensive process of consultation and analysis. In this chapter, the regions are grouped according to provinces. The characteristics of the regions are described, including those of Marion and Prince Edward Islands. The purpose of these descriptions is to provide an indication of key characteristics relating to the natural and socio-economic setting, and development opportunities and constraints of the regions. These summaries are brief, but they provide a clear indication of the diversity and richness of our coast. Key elements of regional vision statements, as developed in 22 regional workshops, are outlined in Table 6. A summary of regional issues is also outlined in this chapter. These issues were identified through an extensive process of public participation. Additional insight into the regional issues was obtained through:
The Project Management Team compiled the regional summaries of issues based on these sources. Feedback on the accuracy of the summaries was obtained from interested and affected parties, a number of the specialists who took part in the Specialist Studies and members of a Task Team. These issues are intended to serve as agenda items for action. This does not mean that the Coastal Policy should necessarily address each issue. Some issues may be best addressed through existing laws and institutions. Nonetheless, these issues serve to highlight the range and scope of regional opportunities and challenges relating to coastal management. [ Top ] Table 6: Key Elements of the Regional Vision Statements
NORTHERN CAPE PROVINCE The Northern Cape provincial boundaries define the extent of the Namaqualand coastal region.
[ Top ] Namaqualand The Namaqualand coastal region is a virtually uninhabited desert. It stretches 390 km from the Orange River mouth, on the border between South Africa and Namibia, to the boundary of the Northern Cape and Western Cape Provinces. Rainfall is low (less than 100 mm annually). Strong southerly winds cause upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich, deep water that maintains extensive beds of aquatic plants, such as kelp. It also supports valuable fisheries including hake, pilchard and anchovy, as well as large seal, sea-bird, rock lobster, mussel and limpet populations. There are relatively few species, but these often occur in very high densities. There are no significant bays on this straight coast. Sandy shores comprise 30% of the coastline, while rocky shores comprise the remaining 70%. Only the Orange and Olifants rivers flow year-round and the only wetland of note is the Orange River estuary at Alexander Bay, which has international importance and recognition as a Ramsar site. The region is characterised by sandy soils that support sparse, scrubby strandveld vegetation, which is well adapted to extreme temperatures and limited moisture, but is sensitive to disturbance. Agricultural potential is poor, but the unusual succulent vegetation and annual wild flower display are important assets of the region. The Magisterial District of Namaqualand had an estimated population of 67 000 in 1995. The coastal population, however, was estimated at 13 000, of which 90% live in the towns of Port Nolloth, Alexander Bay, Kleinsee, Koiingnaas and Hondeklip Bay. Public access to the coast is limited by poor road infrastructure and the tight security restrictions enforced by diamond mining operations. Unemployment is high in coastal communities. There is an almost total dependence on the few large companies that dominate the diamond mining and fishing activities. Land-based diamond reserves have, however, been almost completely exhausted and off-shore reserves are now being exploited. Fish stocks, including rock lobster, the major catch landed locally, have been declining for a number of years. The distance from major urban centres, limited access to markets, scarcity of fresh water, lack of a deep-water harbour and the restricted access to the diamond concession areas pose serious challenges to the region’s future development. There are, however, some resources that could be developed. The seal colony at Kleinsee is probably the largest mainland seal colony in the world and could be developed into a tourist attraction. The establishment of the Coastal National Park between the Groen and Spoeg rivers will also appeal to those who appreciate a wilderness experience. Mariculture and harvesting of under-utilised marine resources, such as mussels and limpets, also offer potential for the future development of this region. Issues: Namaqualand Coast Our National Heritage
Coastal Planning and Development
Pollution Control and Waste Management
Natural Resource Management
Governance and Capacity Building
WESTERN CAPE PROVINCE The Western Cape Province includes the West Coast, Cape Metro, Agulhas and Garden Route regions. West Coast The West Coast is a sparsely populated, wind-swept, arid region. It stretches 260 km, from the Olifants River mouth at the boundary between the Northern Cape and the Western Cape provinces, to Bokpunt, near Atlantis, on the outskirts of the Cape Town Metropole. The region has a semi-arid climate with low rainfall (100 - 400 mm annually). Strong southerly winds are responsible for the upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich waters that support extensive kelp beds and substantial stocks of fish, abalone, mussels, rock lobster and seals. The coast is indented by several bays, including Saldanha Bay, the only deep-water bay in South Africa. Sandy beaches interspersed with occasional rocky outcrops along the shores of St Helena Bay give way to a more rugged, rocky shoreline at Columbine and Saldanha, and long sandy beaches to the south. Sandy beaches comprise 73% of the coastline, while rocky shore and wave-cut rocky platforms comprise the remaining 27%. There are several significant river and wetland systems, notably the Olifants and Berg rivers, Verlorenvlei, Rocher Pan and Langebaan Lagoon, which provide important habitat for wading birds. The agricultural potential of the area is poor. Soils are sandy and vegetation is typically sparse, consisting mainly of strandveld (semi-succulent scrub) and fynbos, which are well adapted to the hot, dry conditions. The Magisterial Districts of the West Coast had an estimated population of 273 000 in 1995. The population along the coast, however, was estimated at 40 000, concentrated in the towns of Lamberts Bay, Velddrif, St Helena Bay, Vredenburg, Saldanha and Langebaan. The deep-water port of Saldanha forms the centre of the Vredenburg-Saldanha-Langebaan complex, the largest settlement on the West Coast. The coastal road stretches north only as far as Velddrif, and towns such as Elands Bay and Lamberts Bay are accessible only from inland. Part of the Sishen-Saldanha railway line serves the northern areas. The West Coast is the centre of South Africa’s commercial fishing industry. Highly industrialised and capital-intensive trawl and purse-seine fisheries, together with the lobster fishery, dominate the economy of the region. Hake and pilchard fisheries are showing a recovery from past over-exploitation, but the lobster fishery is declining. Poaching of this valuable resource is cause for concern. The port of Saldanha caters for recreational, mariculture and industrial activities. The industrial activities were recently given a boost through the development of the Saldanha Steel project. Other coastal towns, such as Lamberts Bay, Velddrif, Elands Bay and Yzerfontein, are increasingly attracting tourists and holiday home-owners. Several modern resorts, such as Club Mykonos, Port Owen and Britannia Bay, catering almost exclusively for visitors, are also developing along the coast. The scarcity and quality of fresh water has been one of the major obstacles to development in this region. Despite this problem, there has been substantial investment in mariculture, shipping, industrial, manufacturing, tourism and recreational activities. Natural features, such as the wild flowers and Langebaan Lagoon, which forms part of the West Coast National Park, as well as the region’s close proximity to Cape Town, make it an attractive tourism and holiday destination.
[ Top ] Issues: West Coast Our National Heritage
Coastal Planning and Development
Pollution Control and Waste Management
Natural Resource Management
Governance and Capacity Building
Cape Metro The Cape Metro is a densely populated urban area. The region extends 195 km from Bokpunt, near Atlantis, to Cape Hangklip, the eastern headland of False Bay. The Mediterranean climate ensures warm, dry summers and cool, wet winters, with annual rainfall varying between 400 mm in the low-lying areas to over 2 000 mm in some mountainous areas. The strong southerly winds cause upwelling of deep nutrient-rich water and result in highly productive, cold coastal waters. This results in extensive kelp beds and large populations of seals and penguins, as well as species such as pilchard, anchovy, rock lobster and abalone. Furthermore, the Cape Peninsula lies at the junction of the cool-temperate west coast and the warm-temperate south coast and consequently has a particularly high biological diversity. There are a variety of bays along this rugged coastline, including two of the largest bay systems in South Africa - Table Bay and False Bay. The shore consists of a mix of sandy beaches (43%) and rocky shores (57%). There are no large river catchments, but some important estuarine wetlands are found at Rietvlei, the mouth of the Diep River, the Disa River, Wildevoëlvlei, Die Mond at Cape Point and Sandvlei. Soils are characteristically sandy and, although low in nutrients, support extensive areas of fynbos, which has very high plant diversity. Although the rich soils of valleys such as Constantia and the hills north of Cape Town have high agricultural value, most of the coast is dominated by human settlement. The population is large (in excess of 1.6 million in 1995), with about 900 000 people living in coastal suburbs within the Cape Town commuter belt, including, for example, Melkbosstrand, Camps Bay, Hout Bay, Ocean View, Muizenberg and Strand. Infrastructure is very well developed, with good road, rail, shipping and aircraft links. In addition to the port of Cape Town, important small-craft harbours are located at Hout Bay, Simons Bay, Kalk Bay and Gordons Bay. The large and diverse economy is based mainly on manufacturing, Government and community services, shipping, commerce and tourism. Although manufacturing makes the greatest contribution to income, the Government and community services sector employs the greatest number of people. High demand for residential housing along the coast reflects a vibrant regional economy. Population growth and urbanisation, however, are putting pressure on water supplies, waste disposal systems and the amenity value of the region. The scenic beauty of the region forms the basis of major tourism, recreational and real estate industries. Local and international tourists are drawn here by the region’s natural and cultural features, including Table Mountain, the magnificent coast, beaches and surfing sites, the penguin and seal colonies, and other recreational opportunities offered by the region. The recently proclaimed Cape Peninsula National Park should contribute to better management of the region’s natural attractions.
[ Top ] Issues: Cape Metro Our National Heritage
Coastal Planning and Development
Pollution Control and Waste Management
Natural Resource Management
Governance and Capacity Building
Agulhas Coast The Agulhas coast is the southernmost coastal region in Africa. It extends 335 km, from Cape Hangklip, the eastern headland of False Bay, to the mouth of the Gouritz River, just west of Mossel Bay. Rainfall is seasonal, with 400 mm – 1 000 mm falling mainly during the winter months each year. This seasonality is less pronounced towards the east. Cape Agulhas lies roughly between the cool west coast and the subtropical east coast, with water temperatures increasing eastwards. The coastal waters are highly productive due to upwelling of nutrient-rich waters, mainly west of Cape Agulhas, but also at selected locations as far east as Port Elizabeth. Important resources include kelp and red algae, pilchard, dagerad, white steenbras, kob, galjoen, black mussels, white mussels, alikreukel, rock lobster and abalone. The region has several large bays, for example Walker Bay and St Sebastian Bay, and many smaller bays. About 43% of the coast is sandy beach, 39% rocky shore and 18% wave-cut rocky platform. The region contains a number of important wetlands, such as Botrivier Vlei, Kleinrivier Vlei, Heuningnes and De Hoop Vlei, and river systems, such as the Breede and Gouritz rivers. The region is widely held to be the centre of the Cape Floral Kingdom, commonly known as fynbos. The mountain fynbos of the western mountains exhibits very high species diversity, while lowland areas support some of the remaining lowland fynbos. The area immediately inland of the coast is intensively utilised for agriculture. The Magisterial Districts of the Agulhas Coast had an estimated population of 173 000 in 1995. The coastal population, however, was estimated at 35 000, concentrated in the greater Hermanus area. Commercial line-fishing operations are based in the towns of Hermanus, Gansbaai, Arniston, Struisbaai and Stilbaai. Intensive fishing has, however, caused the collapse of many fish stocks. This region is the centre of South Africa’s abalone industry, with both marine and land-based mariculture operations. Uncontrolled poaching, however, seriously threatens the existence of this resource. The region has become increasingly popular as a tourism, recreation and retirement destination because of its natural features and scenic beauty. It is home to the De Hoop Nature Reserve which contains 50 km of protected coastline and offers significant regional conservation and tourism opportunities. Shore-based whale watching in this region is reputed to be the best in the world. The proximity to Cape Town and good road networks have increased numbers of weekend visitors. Consequently, there is growing demand for holiday accommodation and related development, which affects not only the natural resource base, but the socio-economic and cultural characteristics of the region. Small fishing villages are giving way to holiday and resort developments, and development has been diverted away from the traditional inland commercial centres of Caledon and Bredasdorp. Limited fresh water resources, particularly towards the eastern part of the region, are a constraint on future development. The culture of "cocktail-sized" abalone is currently being developed and could prove to be lucrative. Other exploitable natural resources include black and white mussels, octopus and alikreukel.
[ Top ] Issues: Agulhas Coast Our National Heritage
Coastal Planning and Development
Pollution Control and Waste Management
Natural Resource Management
Governance and Capacity Building
Garden Route The Garden Route is a rugged and scenic region that extends 225 km, from the Gouritz River west of Mossel Bay, to the Blaauwkrantz River which marks the boundary between the Western and Eastern Cape provinces. The climate is warm temperate, with peak spring and autumn rainfall that averages between 700 and 1 200 mm annually. The coastal waters are warm (17 – 23o C), due to the influence of the Agulhas Current, but the upwelling of cold water occurs at times, considerably reducing the water temperature. The waters are productive and support a diversity of plant, animal and bird life, including numerous fish such as hake, monk, snoek and maasbanker, as well as chokka, algae, limpets, oysters, seals and cormorants. The coast comprises 44% rocky headlands, 18% wave-cut rocky platforms and 38% sandy beaches, as well as five major bays: Visbaai, Vleesbaai, Mossel Bay, Buffalo Bay and Plettenberg Bay. The region has many rivers. Some of the important estuaries include those at the mouths of the Gouritz, Klein Brak, Groot Brak, Swartvlei, Knysna, Keurbooms, Sout and Blaauwkrantz rivers. There are also four fresh-water lakes – Langvlei, Bo-Langvlei, Rondevlei and Groenvlei which, together with the estuarine Swartvlei Lake, constitute the Wilderness Lakes system. Three protected areas incorporate 13% of the coastline: the Goukamma Nature Reserve, the Robberg Marine Reserve and the westernmost portion of the Tsitsikamma Coastal National Park. High dunes occur along the coast, particularly in the area of the Wilderness Lakes. There are large tracts of both indigenous coastal forest and timber plantations in the region. Fynbos and high-potential agricultural land make up most of the remainder of the undeveloped areas. The Magisterial Districts of the Garden Route had an estimated population of 225 000 in 1995. The main urban centres are Mossel Bay, George (some 10 km inland), Plettenberg Bay and Knysna. There is good road and rail infrastructure in the region, with a harbour located at Mossel Bay and airports at George and Plettenberg Bay. Tourism and holiday related development and services are a major economic activity in the region, but these activities are seasonal, with many visitors coming to the region only during the peak summer holiday season. This creates a large seasonal fluctuation in population. There are also many absentee home-owners in the region. Other important economic activities include fishing (especially hake), forestry and agriculture (including vegetables, hops and dairy farming), and a petroleum industry based in Mossel Bay. The scarcity of fresh water could be a constraint on future development options. The Garden Route has enormous value as a tourism and recreational asset. The region’s popularity as a holiday and retirement area has, however, led to rapid property development. Inappropriate property developments could seriously detract from the Garden Route’s scenic qualities, which are its main marketing feature.
Issues: Garden Route Coast Our National Heritage
Coastal Planning and Development
Pollution Control and Waste Management
Natural Resource Management
Governance and Capacity Building
EASTERN CAPE PROVINCE The Eastern Cape Province is made up of the Sunshine Coast, Border-Kei and Wild Coast regions.
Sunshine Coast The Sunshine Coast is a mixture of undeveloped coastal areas and small towns that extends 385 km from the boundary of the Western and Eastern Cape provinces to the Great Fish River. The city of Port Elizabeth dominates the region. The climate is warm-temperate, tending towards sub-tropical in the east. Peak rainfall (500 - 650 mm) occurs in spring and autumn. The warm coastal waters, with occasional cold-water upwellings, support more than 70 species of fish, such as mullet, steenbras, zebra, blacktail and sole, as well as chokka and rock lobsters. More than 55% of the coast is comprised of sandy beaches, while rocky headlands make up 24% and wave-cut rocky platforms 21%. The region is dominated by two large bays, St Francis and Algoa bays, with other smaller bays occurring at Slangbaai and Thysbaai. There are several large estuaries, such as the Swartkops, Krom, Kowie, Boesmans, Great Fish, Gamtoos and Sundays. The Alexandria dunefield on the northern shores of Algoa Bay is the largest dunefield in South Africa. There are several islands in Algoa Bay. St Croix, Brenton and Jahleel islands are nature reserves, with St Croix serving as the most easterly breeding site for the threatened jackass penguin. Bird, Stag and Seal islands and Black Rocks are smaller islands and are protected as sanctuaries for seals and seabirds. The region is noted for the diversity of vegetation types, including large forests in the wetter western areas, fynbos on coastal cliffs and thicket in the drier eastern sections. Grasslands and pastures have high agricultural potential. The five Magisterial Districts of the Sunshine Coast had an estimated population of 849 000 in 1995. About 84% of the population lives in Port Elizabeth. Other coastal towns include Sea Vista in St Francis Bay, Jeffreys Bay, Kenton-on-Sea and Port Alfred. Infrastructure in the region is good and tourism and recreational development and services are significant in the region. Many resort towns offer a range of outdoor activities, including water-sports, hiking, whale watching and fishing. There are several marinas in the region. The economy is dominated by the manufacturing, commercial and industrial activities of Port Elizabeth. The most important fishing activities relate to chokka, kingklip and sole, as well as abalone farming. Sand mining for the cement industry occurs in Algoa Bay. Other activities include forestry, particularly in the Humansdorp district, and a range of agricultural practices. One limitation to further development is the lack of fresh-water resources, which is particularly notable in the St Francis Bay region. Widespread poverty, increasing unemployment and the influx of people from the former Ciskei and Transkei to Port Elizabeth has added impetus to the need for large-scale industrial projects, such as the proposed Coega harbour and Industrial Development Zone. Such developments could potentially have far-reaching consequences and are the subject of intense debate.
Issues: Sunshine Coast Our National Heritage
Coastal Planning and Development
Pollution Control and Waste Management
Natural Resource Management
Governance and Capacity Building
Border-Kei Region The Border-Kei coastal region is largely rural, with East London being the main urban centre. The region extends 153 km from the Great Fish River to the Great Kei River. The climate is mild sub-tropical, with annual rainfall between 800 and 1 000 mm, falling mostly in spring, autumn and summer. The warm coastal waters support fish, rock lobster and chokka, with the potential to develop commercial and subsistence fisheries in reef fish, octopus and cuttlefish. Most of the region is characterised by sandy beaches (62%) interspersed with rocky shores (2%) and wave-cut rocky platforms (36%). More than 32 rivers flow into the sea, with resort development at virtually all river mouths in the eastern part of the region. Large estuaries include the Great Fish, Keiskamma, Buffalo, Nahoon, Gonubie, Kwelera, Bulura and Kei rivers. There are several marine reserves, but no land-based nature reserves. The indigenous State forest reserves, however, afford some protection to the coastal land areas. The vegetation is mainly dune thicket and grassland. Towards the east, vegetated dunes are covered with dense indigenous coastal forest. The four Magisterial Districts of the Border-Kei Coast had an estimated population of 602 000 in 1995, of which about 85% lived in East London. There are also small resort towns at Hamburg, Kidds Beach, Haga Haga, Morgan’s Bay and Kei Mouth. In addition, there are resorts, houses and rural villages scattered along the coast. East London and its surrounds have good road and rail infrastructure, including an airport and harbour. It has a manufacturing and industrial base and an important tourism industry. In contrast, the former Ciskei is amongst the poorest areas in the country, with virtually non-existent infrastructure, poor access to the coast and a high level of subsistence activity. There is little commercial fishing in the region, but recreational angling is popular, especially near the eastern resort towns. Seaweed is actively harvested, and a mariculture operation is under construction at Marshstrand. There are a few quarries near Gonubie which extract sand for the building industry. There are a range of commercial farming operations, including dairy and beef farming and vegetable and pineapple cultivation in the east of the region. The region’s scenic beauty, high biodiversity and wilderness character could support community-based tourism ventures in the future. The development of large-scale industrial projects, such as the proposed East London Industrial Development Zone, focusing on the electronics industry, also offer opportunities to reduce the widespread poverty.
Issues: Border-Kei Region Our National Heritage
Coastal Planning and Development
Pollution Control and Waste Management
Natural Resource Management
Governance and Capacity Building
Wild Coast The Wild Coast is a rugged and undeveloped region, extending 270 km from the Great Kei River to the boundary between the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal. The climate is sub-tropical with plentiful rain, 1 000 – 1 200 mm annually, that falls predominantly in spring and autumn. The warm coastal waters support many fish and invertebrates, such as snoek, maasbanker, kob, silverfish, yellowtail, rock lobster and chokka, as well as a diversity of inter-tidal organisms including oysters and mussels. The region has numerous river outlets, bays and headlands, and is characterised by rocky shores (41% wave-cut platforms and 18% rocky headlands) and sandy beaches (34%). The largest estuaries include the Qora, Nqabara, Mbashe, Mtata, Mtakatye, Mzimvubu, Kei and Mgazana rivers. The southern portion of this region is characterised by low hills and meandering rivers. Farther north, there are steep cliffs deeply incised by rivers which plunge straight into the sea at several places. This aptly named, rugged and isolated coast is difficult to access, which has contributed to maintaining large areas of undeveloped land. About half of the coastline is comprised of indigenous coastal forest that exhibits high levels of biodiversity. Some 900 grassland and forest species with commercial, traditional and homeopathic value have been identified. Five marine and nature reserves cover 19% of the coastline: Dwesa; Cwebe; Hluleka; and, Mkambati. Although currently administered as a reserve by East Cape Nature Conservation, Silaka has yet to be established in terms of law. Many of the forests are under the jurisdiction of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, and the remaining coastal land falls under communal tribal tenure. The nine Magisterial Districts of the Wild Coast had an estimated population of 1.1 million in 1995, with about 8 000 residing in the main coastal town of Port St John’s. Most of this region’s population is located well inland of the coast. A number of holiday resort settlements have been established at places like Trennerys, Mazeppa Bay and Coffee Bay. Infrastructure is, however, poor. Port St John’s and Coffee Bay are the only towns served by a tarred road. The region is dominated by rural subsistence activities, and a high percentage of men are absent as they are involved in migrant labour. Most economic activities are located well inland, with employment primarily in the Government sector. The coast nonetheless provides an important source of food and other resources for local people. Estuaries and mangrove areas are used to some extent by tourists for fishing and boating, and by the local population for food and building materials. There is a small forestry industry and fruit and sugarcane farming are becoming more common. The Wild Coast, however, contributes only a small proportion to the economy of the Eastern Cape. Moreover, the virtual collapse of the local administration has created a climate in which uncontrolled, and often illegal, coastal resource use occurs. With spectacular scenery, deep and fertile soils and a low level of development, agriculture, forestry and tourism are the main potential growth industries, and form the basis of the proposed Wild Coast Spatial Development Initiative. Opportunities should be aimed at small-scale farmers and small, medium and micro enterprises around cultural and nature-based tourism. There is, however, some concern about the extent to which small-scale businesses will derive benefits from this initiative. The challenge will be to bring about much needed investment and development that will benefit local communities and the region as a whole, without compromising the rich natural resource base.
Issues: Wild Coast Our National Heritage
Coastal Planning and Development
Pollution Control and Waste Management
Natural Resource Management
Governance and Capacity Building
KWAZULU-NATAL PROVINCE KwaZulu-Natal Province is made up of the Hibiscus, Durban Metro, LowerTugela/ Dolphin, Zululand and Maputaland coastal regions.
Hibiscus Coast The Hibiscus Coast is a popular holiday destination that extends 127 km from the Umtamvuna River to the Ilovo River, south of the Durban Metro. The region has a warm sub-tropical climate with plentiful rain, 1 000 –1 200 mm annually, that falls mainly in summer. The coast consists predominantly of coarse sandy beaches and occasional rocky headlands and wave-cut platforms. The most prominent offshore reefs occur at the Aliwal Shoal/Landers complex off Umkomaas and the Protea Banks off Shelley Beach. The warm coastal waters support high biodiversity due to the range of habitats the region offers. Pelagic and reef fish and many inshore species such as mussels, oysters, redbait and rock lobster are heavily utilised. At present, there is only one small protected area, the Trafalgar Marine Reserve. The region has about 50 estuaries, the highest number and density of estuaries on the KwaZulu-Natal coast. Large rivers include the Mkomazi and Mzimkulu rivers. Mangroves, reedbeds and swamp forests are associated with some rivers. The coastal vegetation is mainly sub-tropical thicket, which features an exceptionally high number of endemic species, despite generally infertile soils. The combination of past racially-based controls and the concentration of industry inland has resulted in relatively small numbers of people living on the coast. The three Magisterial Districts of the Hibiscus Coast had an estimated population of 424 000 in 1995, about 82% of whom live in the rural former KwaZulu area. Infrastructure and services are limited here, with poor roads and a lack of basic services. There is a flow of people out of the region to areas where more jobs can be found. The former Natal districts, on the other hand, contain many small towns, where infrastructure, road and other communication networks and services are well developed. Port Shepstone is the dominant economic and administrative centre and the Uvongo-Margate coastal strip is the main tourist and holiday destination. A large proportion of the economic activity in this region is due to tourism and recreation. During holiday periods there is a large influx of visitors from all over the country. SCUBA diving, based mainly on the offshore reefs in the region, has emerged as an important industry, with some 40 000 divers visiting Aliwal Shoal annually. Charter boat fishing is also emerging as an increasingly popular activity. While tourism infrastructure is well developed, there is concern that development has not always been pursued in an environmentally responsible manner.
Issues: Hibiscus Coast Our National Heritage
Coastal Planning and Development
Pollution Control and Waste Management
Natural Resource Management
Governance and Capacity Building
[ Top ] Durban Metro The Durban Metro region is dominated by the Durban Metropolis and extends 52 km from the Ilovo River to the Tongaat River. The region has a warm sub-tropical climate, with plentiful rainfall (1 000 – 1 200 mm per annum), falling mainly in summer. The warm coastal waters support many species of fish, including shad, zebra, stumpnose, mullet and karanteen, and invertebrates such as rock lobster and mole crabs. Shark nets are maintained off most beaches to protect swimmers, but they have a negative impact on species such as rays, turtles and dolphins. The coastline is mostly coarse sandy beaches backed by low dunes. Occasional rocky outcrops, most notable at the entrance to Durban Bay, interrupt the long beaches. Durban Bay is a natural lagoon that has been developed into southern Africa’s major port. There are other important estuaries on the Mgeni, Mlazi, Manzimtoti, Ilovo and Molloti rivers. The development of the harbour and Durban beachfront infrastructure has impacted heavily on the coast. To avoid erosion and maintain the beaches, an expensive sand-pumping scheme has been installed. Durban Bay still, however, plays an important role as an estuary, supporting diverse fish and invertebrate communities. Inter-tidal resources are only lightly exploited, as most of this coast is closed to collection. The Durban Metropolitan Council area had a population of approximately 1.9 million in 1995, although that of the wider metropolitan region was in excess of 3 million. Despite good infrastructure, about a third of the population is still without formal housing and basic services. The port handles over 5 000 vessels and over a million containers annually and employs, directly and indirectly, between 20 000 and 30 000 people. More than half of all formal employment is provided by the manufacturing, commerce and financial sectors. Petro-chemicals and textiles are important industrial activities in the region, with large industrial sites located just south of the city and inland at Pinetown. Coastal pollution, from sources such as soil erosion, industrial wastes and shipping, pose a major challenge for the region. The region has a wide range of natural and human-made attributes that make the area an attractive destination, with approximately 1.5 million people visiting in 1997. The beaches are the most popular attraction (40% of all visitors to KwaZulu-Natal travel to the province to visit Durban’s beaches). The region’s accessibility (from other parts of the country) and affordability ensure that Durban will remain one of the premier holiday destinations, at least in terms of the domestic market.
Issues: Durban Metro Coast Our National Heritage
Coastal Planning and Development
Pollution Control and Waste Management
Natural Resource Management
Governance and Capacity Building
[ Top ] Lower Tugela / Dolphin Coast The Dolphin Coast is a sub-tropical region, extending 70 km from Tongaat River to the Tugela River mouth. The region has a warm climate with plentiful rain (1 000 – 1 200 mm annually) that falls mainly in summer. Warm coastal waters support a wide variety of fish and shellfish that are targeted by recreational and commercial fishers. Species include shad, karanteen, stumpnose, blacktail and mullet, as well as mussels, rock lobsters, redbait, oysters, limpets, ghost crabs and prawns. The coastline is characterised by coarse sandy beaches enclosed between rocky outcrops. The Tugela is the largest river in the region and there are several estuaries. There has been substantial modification to the natural environment due to land clearing for sugarcane and timber cultivation, as well as coastal housing development. Very little natural vegetation remains and that which remains is mostly on privately owned land. The Lower Tugela Magisterial District had an estimated population of 104 000 in 1995. The main residential and tourism nodes are Ballito, Salt Rock, Tinley Manor, Blythdale and Zinkwazi. The economy of this region is dominated by agriculture (predominantly sugarcane), light industry (engineering, wood products, paper and packaging) and tourism. Due to its proximity to Durban and the accessibility of beaches, recreational harvesting of inshore resources is extensive, but there is little subsistence use. Most of the industrial areas are situated on the primary development axis between Durban and Richards Bay, the focus for new investment in the proposed Spatial Development Initiative for the area. This region is reputed to have the fastest growing real estate industry along the South African coast. Many private holiday homes and a few hotels are situated in this region. Although much of the coast has been modified, it is likely to continue to attract large numbers of holidaymakers. The proposed new airport at La Mercy, near Tongaat, could benefit the area and increase the number of visitors to the region.
Issues: Lower Tugela / Dolphin Coast Our National Heritage
Coastal Planning and Development
Pollution Control and Waste Management
Natural Resource Management
Governance and Capacity Building
uThungulu: Zululand Coast The Zululand coastal region extends 134 km from the Tugela River in the south to the St Lucia estuary in the north. The coastal waters are warm, influenced by the Agulhas Current, and support a variety of coastal and marine organisms, including prawns, lobster, mussels, octopus, fish, whales and whale sharks. The region has a warm sub-tropical climate with good summer rains (1 000 – 1 200 mm annually). The vegetation is generally tropical and sub-tropical thicket, with tropical forest north of Mtunzini. Extensive sugarcane farming and timber production occurs adjacent to the coast. The coast is dominated by long sandy beaches, backed by high forested dunes, and broad coastal plains with many rivers, coastal lakes and wetlands. These lake and estuarine systems support valuable wetlands, rich in papyrus, swamp forests and mangroves. They also support a wide variety of birds and animals, including, in some cases, hippos and crocodiles. The region contains several estuaries, some of which are proclaimed protected areas. The three Magisterial Districts of the Zululand Coast had an estimated population of 79 000 in 1995, but the population of the regional hinterland was in the order of 1.8 million. The only coastal city in the region is Richards Bay, which has an important deep water harbour. The region also has a well developed road network and airport facilities. [ Top ] The economy of the region is dominated by port activities, light and heavy industry, mining, sugarcane and timber. Formal employment and economic activity is centred around Richards Bay, which supports some 300 000 people in the coastal and hinterland areas. The Mandini/Isithebe industrial sites and the sugarcane industry support more than 100 000 and 300 000 people respectively. The coastal dunes are rich in heavy minerals, especially oxides of titanium. Richards Bay Minerals has extensively mined the dunes to the north of Richards Bay. A wide variety of fish and shellfish are targeted by recreational and commercial fishers, but over-exploitation has caused the decline of some reef and linefish stocks. There is an important prawn fishery centred on the Tugela Bank and a land-based prawn mariculture operation in the region. Concern has been expressed about pollution in the region, particularly sewage and industrial effluent pipelines discharging into the sea. With the correct precautions and effective planning and control, the mix of industry, mining, agriculture, forestry, and nature- and culture-based tourism could provide a robust and sustainable economic foundation for the region.
Issues: Zululand Coast Our National Heritage
Coastal Planning and Development
Pollution Control and Waste Management
Natural Resource Management
Governance and Capacity Building
uThungulu: Maputaland Coast The Maputaland coastal region is well known for its natural features and scenic beauty. It stretches 179 km from the mouth of the St Lucia estuary to the border between South Africa and Mozambique, just north of Kosi Bay. The region has a warm sub-tropical climate and is occasionally exposed to summer tropical cyclones. Mean annual rainfall is 1 300 – 1 400 mm, and occurs throughout the year. The warm coastal waters are the only truly tropical waters in South Africa. The region supports extensive wetlands. It has diverse wildlife, including whales, sharks, crocodiles and hippopotami. Sodwana Bay is one of the prime areas in South Africa for gamefish, such as black marlin and sailfish. The beaches provide important nesting sites for loggerhead and leatherback turtles. The region is characterised by large inter-connecting lakes, high forested dunes, sandy beaches and low cliffs. The St Lucia lake and estuary run parallel to the coast for 60 km and form the largest estuarine system in southern Africa. The southernmost coral reef system in the Indian Ocean and deep, steep-sided submarine canyons, possibly remnants of ancient river mouths, are located a few kilometres from the shore. These marine features fall entirely within the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park, which includes the St Lucia Park and the Maputaland Marine Reserve. Vegetation in the wetland areas includes mangroves, swamp forests and reeds. Tall, forested coastal dunes are also features of this region. The three Magisterial Districts of the Maputaland Coast had an estimated population of 502 000 in 1995, with St Lucia Village being the only sizeable town along the coast. A significant feature of the region is the poor infrastructure (only 5% of the population have access to proper sanitation). The region is dominated by rural subsistence activities. The economy is based primarily on subsistence agriculture and the sale of handcrafts at the tourist centres of Sodwana and St Lucia. SCUBA diving is an important activity along the Maputaland Coast, especially at Sodwana, which is visited by over 60 000 divers annually. There is extensive recreational and subsistence fishing in the region. Traditional fish traps are used, especially in the vicinity of the Kosi Bay lake system. There is heavy mineral mining north of Richards Bay, and a controversial proposal to mine the eastern shores of the St Lucia Park. The beautiful scenery and natural features, such as the lakes, reefs, wildlife and warm seas, give this region considerable potential for nature-based tourism. With appropriate planning and the development of infrastructure, this region could provide an important economic base for nature- and culture-based tourism for the benefit of coastal communities. This is the focus of the Lubombo Spatial Development Initiative that has commenced in the region.
[ Top ] Issues: Maputaland Coast Our National Heritage
Coastal Planning and Development
Pollution Control and Waste Management
Natural Resource Management
Governance and Capacity Building
Prince Edward Islands The Prince Edward Islands - Marion and Prince Edward islands — are small, remote and inaccessible volcanic islands located approximately 2 000 km south of Cape Town, half-way to Antarctica and in the middle of the Southern Ocean. Both islands are roughly circular and have rugged coasts with steep, rocky cliffs rising vertically from the sea. The coastlines of Marion and Prince Edward islands are about 72 km and 29 km respectively. Beaches generally comprise boulders rather than sand and there are very few bays or rivers. The weather on the islands is severe. The wind blows almost continuously, frequently reaching gale-force. Sunshine is rare and rainfall is an almost daily occurrence, which, combined with poor drainage, results in water-logged soils. For the most part, the islands are covered in peat bogs carpeted with moss and ferns, while lichens grow in the more mountainous areas. There are no trees or shrubs. The islands are used by large colonies of sea-birds and seals for breeding purposes, and in the case of penguins, to sit out their vulnerable moulting period. The Prince Edward Islands form South Africa’s southernmost territory, having been annexed by the country in the late 1940s. Active sealing took place in the past, but since these activities ceased, the seals have been left relatively undisturbed. Prince Edward Island is totally uninhabited and is virtually pristine, but Marion Island has been used for scientific research since its annexation. The islands were declared Special Nature Reserves about ten years ago. The main threat to these sub-Antarctic islands is the introduction of alien plant and animal species. Marion Island has been particularly susceptible to imported alien species in the past, often with disastrous consequences. Mice introduced by sealers in the mid -19th century continue to have a severe impact on the insects, a vital component in the nutrient recycling system of the island. In a misguided effort to control mice populations, cats were brought to the island about 50 years ago. This soon back-fired, as they rapidly bred out of control and started attacking the sea-birds, thus necessitating a costly campaign to eradicate the cats. The islands’ remoteness offers the opportunity for specialised tourism. The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism is currently considering opening Marion Island to limited and controlled tourism. While a financial boost would undoubtedly be very helpful to maintain the limited infrastructure, and to assist cash-strapped research projects, the impacts caused by tourists would need to be closely monitored and strictly controlled. [ Top ]
Section CTowards a Coastal PolicyChapter 7Some Key Policy Questions This chapter outlines some of the most important questions that need to be considered in drawing up a Coastal Policy for South Africa. These include questions around:
INTRODUCTION Past experience with coastal management and related activities in South Africa and internationally draws attention to a number of key policy questions that need to be answered in formulating and implementing a Coastal Policy in South Africa. Seven such matters are outlined in this chapter, based on this experience.
Additional questions are highlighted under each section, in order to promote discussion and debate. You are invited to give feedback on these questions, and on any other questions of concern to you. Only by giving careful consideration to such key policy questions can a relevant and practical policy be developed. 1. SCOPE OF POLICY The first area of strategic choice concerns the scope of policy. International experience emphasises the importance of maintaining a strategic focus in developing and implementing a coastal management programme. The programme must be selective about which issues to address, and where and when to address them. Programmes fail when they try to do too much at once, or are spread too thinly. The scale, scope and complexity of coastal policy usually increases through the successive completion of policy goals and objectives. Each stage of completion is called a "generation". Typical issues addressed by first generation programmes internationally have included shorefront development, public access, hazard reduction, habitat protection and marine protected areas. While fisheries and water quality are always important problems, they tend not to be the focus of national coastal programmes, but continue as sectoral programmes. In developing countries, national coastal programmes have often found it necessary to address the priorities of basic needs provision, such as water supply and sanitation. Although these areas are adequately covered by other policies in South Africa, it is important that the Coastal Policy does have a developmental focus.
Key Questions
2. DEFINING THE COAST Defining coastal boundaries is a challenge confronting all coastal management programmes. Few national policies have defined coastal boundaries uniformly throughout the country. A variety of landward and seaward boundaries have been used to define the coast for different activities in South Africa (see Figure 2). It is increasingly recognised that different definitions of the coast should be used to serve various analytical and implementation purposes, at different scales of time and space. Most national coastal policies have tended to provide guidance and broad parameters under which provinces and districts set more specific coastal boundaries, depending on the management goal.
Key Questions
3. APPROACH TO POLICY DEVELOPMENT Internationally, there is considerable variability in the extent of centralisation and prescriptiveness in national coastal policies. In countries with federalist systems (e.g., the United States and Australia), national coastal policy is frequently facilitative, often including national level funding and technical support. Broad principles are recognised, goals and objectives are set, and mechanisms are established to facilitate detailed planning and implementation at lower levels of Government. In such systems, coastal management programmes are often seen as essential for national–local co-ordination, and for balancing national and local interests. In countries with centralised Governments (e.g., Sri Lanka), national policy is typically more prescriptive. In South Africa, past experience has shown that prescriptive and control-based approaches to policy implementation are far less likely to be effective than facilitative approaches. In addition, for policy to be effective, it should emphasise the economic and social benefits that can be derived from the coast, as well as the need to protect the coastal ecosystems on which those benefits depend. In ensuring access to coastal resources, policy also needs to ensure that the needs of historically disadvantaged communities are addressed. Choices also need to be made about mechanisms to ensure effective participation by a broad range of interested and affected parties in coastal management. Creating meaningful opportunities for public participation in policy formulation and implementation is seen as essential by coastal management programmes around the world. National programmes have also emphasised the importance of public education. In developing countries, the Government plays a central role in providing education, while in the United States and Australia other role-players such as non-governmental organisations do much of this work. Finally, capacity building of Government agencies and other key role-players has been seen as important. Capacity building is one of the key pillars of the Australian policy, and in Sri Lanka, Ecuador and the Philippines, training of communities and local level officials has been a major priority. In addition to education and training, capacity building can include budgetary allocations, changes in structures and personnel, and assistance for managing consultants. [ Top ]
Key Questions
4. INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS A major area in which strategic choices have to be made is that of determining appropriate institutional arrangements for the implementation of the Coastal Policy. Choices need to be made about the exact powers and functions of different spheres of Government, including national, provincial and local spheres. Coastal management encompasses functions that currently involve national, provincial and local responsibilities. Therefore the devolution of powers and functions is a key strategic issue.
International experience Experience internationally has highlighted two key institutional aspects that need to be addressed:
Experience has shown that it is more effective to use existing institutions wherever possible. Building capacity to take on new roles is also more cost-effective than setting up new structures. Because of the inter-sectoral nature of coastal management, improving co-ordination between actors and fostering strategic alliances between relevant Government agencies, the private sector and civil society is of central importance. Only where absolutely necessary have additional structures and procedures been established for more effective implementation.
South Africa Given the nature of the national-provincial-local framework, as well as the Constitution and other legislative and policy directives, a number of policy options and choices will need to be considered for the different spheres of Government and in the different coastal provinces. National Sphere
Provincial sphere
Local Sphere
Note: In Chapter 10, the possible combination and/or variation of the institutional options addressed above are further explored and specific proposals made.
Key Questions
5. INSTRUMENTS FOR IMPLEMENTATION Strategic choices need to be made about which instruments to use in implementing the Coastal Policy. These choices are informed by programme objectives, and whether the preconditions exist for the effective use of particular instruments. Coastal management programmes internationally use a variety of instruments for policy implementation. These can be summarised according to the following categories:
To date, the Coastal Management Policy Programme has focused attention primarily on possible legal and institutional arrangements that might be used to implement a Coastal Policy. Attention has also been given to the participation of user and interest groups in such arrangements, and to possible conflict resolution mechanisms. Further attention will be given to a number of the other possible instruments for policy implementation in the next phase of the programme (see Appendix 3).
Key Questions
6. FUNDING AND RESOURCES Financing national coastal programmes is always a challenge. Unless a coastal management programme becomes part of mainstream Government work, with a regular, recurrent budget, it will never be locally supported or sustained. In developed countries, local budgets for coastal management activities are often supplemented by national Government funding. Maintaining national Government support for the devolution of funding requires that the programme enjoys broad-based public support. In developing countries, national budgets are often supplemented by grants from donor agencies. External funding occurs on a long-term basis usually only where benefits to the donor agencies or nations are perceived. In South Africa, it needs to be recognised that there is a scarcity of resources to support decision-making and policy implementation. The Coastal Management Policy Programme has benefited up to this point from generous financial support from the British Government. A powerful effect of the Coastal Policy could be to influence the values and ideas that drive local policies and programmes which have resources, e.g., Spatial Development Initiatives (SDIs), industrial policy and infrastructure programmes. For policy implementation, it is essential to have dedicated allocations to specific coastal management activities and projects in the budgets of local authorities and the four coastal provinces. The potential of public-private sector partnerships and private sector investments to supplement scarce Government resources and to promote efficient, effective and sustainable management efforts should also be investigated. While resources for coastal management should ideally be evenly spread, management methods should be designed to work in an under-resourced context in regions of our coast.
Key Questions
7. MONITORING AND REVIEW Finally, consideration needs to be given to how to ensure a continuing cycle of improvement in implementing the Coastal Policy. Most national coastal programmes have statutory requirements for review and readjustment, using monitoring and evaluation mechanisms. The aim is usually to track the impact of a programme, to ensure continual improvement and to promote accountability. Standards for coastal management monitoring and evaluation are not yet well established internationally. There is, however, considerable effort underway to develop a common methodology for monitoring and evaluation, so that experience can be more effectively shared. Although monitoring and review have been mentioned in previous environmental policy documents in South Africa, these aspects have never been adequately addressed. Because monitoring occurs at different scales and involves many dimensions, it needs to be carried out by a network involving scientific researchers, information systems, community role-players and Government. Monitoring should focus both on the state of the coastal environment (biophysical, institutional, social and economic) and on the success of policy implementation through coastal management initiatives, measured against policy objectives and performance criteria.
[ Top ] Key Questions
The next chapter sets out the vision towards which a Coastal Policy should aim, and the principles on which it could be based. Chapter 8Vision and PrinciplesThis chapter lays the groundwork for the goals and objectives in Chapter 9, by setting out a framework within which they are formulated. This includes the following sections:
INTRODUCTION Public policy has already been referred to as providing the framework for helping society move from a point of departure (i.e., coastal issues of public concern) towards a common destination (i.e., a shared vision of the future of our coast). The Coastal Policy must be based on accepted public values and provide clear guidance for addressing issues of public concern. Agreement needs to be reached on a vision for our coast. Agreement also needs to be reached on appropriate principles, goals and objectives for coastal management. Then possible institutional and legal arrangements can be developed and considered. Choices can then be made to ensure that the policy is implemented in a practical and proactive way, that issues of concern are addressed and that the vision is realised. This chapter proposes a vision for our coast and a set of principles for coastal management. Based on these proposals, and guided by a range of other policies and laws, possible goals and objectives for coastal management are outlined in Chapter 9. The principles, goals and objectives are central to realising the vision and addressing the issues of concern to people. In essence, they provide the foundation for achieving the ideal of sustainable coastal development. Chapter 10 outlines possible legal and institutional arrangements for implementing the Coastal Policy. The contents of this and the next chapter draw on an extensive process of public participation, research and specialist study (see Appendices 1 and 4). These proposals need further consideration, debate and refinement before the final Coastal Policy is prepared. Your input on this document will contribute to the debate around, and the development of the policy. These proposals are presented to provide a concrete starting point for consideration and further discussion. TOWARDS A VISION FOR OUR COAST This proposed vision statement was developed after an extensive process of regional consultation with interested and affected parties. Between November and December 1997, 22 visioning and issues identification workshops were held around the coast, involving over 800 people from more than 200 organisations. The results of these workshops were sent to participants, and feedback was requested in writing and through follow-up meetings. A summary of the information gained from regional workshops has been presented in Chapter 6. These findings provided the foundation from which the proposed national vision was developed by members of the Policy Committee, the Project Management Team and Regional Managers.
You are requested to make comments on this proposed national vision. Based on your feedback, a final national vision statement will be prepared, discussed and agreed upon.
Proposed National Vision
The proposed vision seeks to provide a clear statement of intent for the policy. It expresses our intention to enhance the capacity of current and future generations to realise their human potential, within the context of maintaining diverse, healthy and productive coastal ecosystems. It is important to state explicitly that the development of the proposed national vision, as well as the principles, goals and objectives for coastal management, are based on an assumption of the need to respect and cherish the rich and diverse heritage of our coast. Different parts of our coast have distinct qualities, offering comparative and competitive advantages for future development. The proposals in this document are informed by these varied qualities and opportunities. To realise this vision, we need to set out the principles that guide our actions, and the goals and objectives that we are going to work towards. The next section outlines principles for coastal management. PRINCIPLES FOR COASTAL MANAGEMENT Principles provide the point of departure for translating our vision into practice. They are the fundamental basis for reasoning and action. These principles are seen to be "universal truths". The proposed principles must be considered as a whole – the full meaning of each principle can be realised only in relation to the other principles. The explicit focus here is on developing principles for coastal management. The Constitution of South Africa outlines a broader set of principles relevant to the wider agenda of societal development and transformation. To achieve the ideal of sustainable coastal development, the following principles for coastal management are proposed: Principles for Coastal Management
The next chapter proposes goals and objectives for coastal management. Chapter 9Goals and ObjectivesThis chapter sets out goals and objectives for coastal management, on the basis of the vision and principles outlined in Chapter 8. The goals and objectives are arranged into five themes:
INTRODUCTION This chapter sets out goals and objectives based upon the vision and principles outlined in the previous chapter. These goals and objectives provide more detailed direction for achieving the vision of sustainable coastal development. They address the key issues of concern. They also apply, build upon, integrate and clarify directives outlined in other relevant policies and laws, where appropriate. Many policies and laws are directly relevant to realising the ideal of sustainable coastal development. Among the more important of these are the Constitution, the Development Facilitation Act, the National Environmental Management Bill and the Marine Living Resources Act. Other relevant policies and laws include those relating to agriculture, biodiversity conservation, disaster management, energy, forestry, local Government, maritime activities, minerals, pollution and waste management, the sea-shore, tourism, transport and water. Furthermore, South Africa is a signatory to a number of international conventions and agreements that have an important bearing on coastal management.
Goals and Objectives The goals and objectives have been organised in terms of five major themes:
Under each of these themes, a list of key issues, and then a set of proposed goals and objectives, is presented. These goals and objectives should not be viewed in isolation from each other – they must be considered as a whole. No one goal or objective has greater importance than another. A number of these proposed goals and objectives are open to differing viewpoints and debate. Your attention is drawn to matters known to be the subject of debate by means of footnotes. [ Top ] Your feedback on these proposals is needed to formulate the final Coastal Policy. THEME A: OUR NATIONAL HERITAGE Our coast is a special national heritage that should be planned and managed in the long-term public interest. All South Africans, particularly organs of State, have a responsibility to ensure that it is planned and managed in the public interest. Key Issues
Goal A1: Physical Access To ensure that the public has the right of physical access to the sea, and to and along the sea-shore, on a managed basis Objective A1.1: Opportunities for public access shall be provided at identified, appropriate coastal locations.
Objective A1.2: Where appropriate, public access shall be managed to minimise adverse impacts and to resolve incompatible uses
Existing rights, including private property and traditional user rights, public health, safety and security, shall be taken into account.
Goal A2: Equitable Access To ensure that the public has the right of equitable access to the opportunities and benefits of the coast, on a managed basis Objective A2.1: Coastal resources shall be allocated and used in a manner that is fair and just, with particular attention given to the needs of disadvantaged communities.
Goal A3: State Responsibility To ensure that the State fulfils its duties as the legal custodian of all coastal State assets on behalf of the people of South Africa Objective A3.1: The State shall retain ownership and ensure effective management of coastal waters and the sea-shore.
Objective A3.2: The State shall effectively manage, retain and endeavour to extend the Admiralty Reserve.
Objective A3.3: The State shall retain ownership of and ensure effective management of State land along the sea-shore
Objective A3.4: Coastal assets under the control of parastatal organisations shall be managed in the public interest, and coastal resources shall not be alienated for private purposes.
Goal A4: Distinctive Characteristics and Dedicated Management To address the distinctive characteristics of the coastal system through dedicated coastal planning and management Objective A4.1: Coastal planning and management efforts shall demonstrate that the inter-relationships between the land and sea, and between coastal ecosystems and human users, have been taken into account.
THEME B: COASTAL PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT Coastal planning and management should be undertaken proactively to optimise sustainable development opportunities. Our coast provides many development opportunities that are dependent on maintaining the diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems. We need to proactively identify and realise these benefits, in the interests of current and future generations. Key Issues
Goal B1: Coast-dependent Economies and Activities To promote the diversity, vitality and sustainability of coastal economies and activities, giving preference to those that are distinctly coastal or dependent on a coastal location Objective B1.1: Coastal planning and management efforts shall proactively seek to realise the long-term economic development potential of coastal localities and regions.
Objective B1.2: Preference shall be given to distinctly coastal economic development opportunities and to activities that are dependent on a coastal location.
Objective B1.3: A system of appropriately located and financially sustainable ports, small-craft harbours and related facilities shall be developed and effectively maintained.
Objective B1.4: Adequate public facilities shall be provided at appropriate coastal locations.
Objective B1.5: Opportunities for mariculture shall be identified and encouraged at appropriate coastal locations.
Objective B1.6: Coastal tourism and recreational development opportunities shall be identified and promoted at appropriate coastal locations.
Objective B1.7: All activities relating to coastal prospecting, mining and the exploitation of petroleum, oil and gas shall be conducted in an environmentally responsible manner.
Goal B2: Balance and Diversity To maintain and enhance the diversity and harmony of coastal land-and sea-scapes by maintaining an appropriate balance between built, rural and wilderness areas Objective B2.1: Nodal development and densification of existing nodes shall be promoted to sustain the economic potential and protect the aesthetic, amenity, cultural and ecological values of coastal localities and regions.
Objective B2.2: New structures shall be designed and located in a manner that retains the visual beauty, wilderness character and associated benefits of undeveloped coastal areas.
Objective B2.3: Inappropriate development in coastal areas of high agricultural potential (including commercial forestry) shall be discouraged.
Goal B3: Design and Management of Coastal Settlements To design and manage coastal settlements to be in harmony with local and regional aesthetic, amenity, biophysical and cultural opportunities and constraints Objective B3.1: The design and built form of coastal settlements shall be in harmony with the aesthetic, amenity, biophysical, economic, social and cultural opportunities and constraints of coastal localities and regions.
Objective B3.2: Coastal settlements and associated activities shall be managed to promote and enhance the socio-economic benefits of the coastal setting and to minimise adverse effects on coastal ecosystems.
Goal B4: Risk and Natural Hazards To plan and manage coastal development so as to avoid increasing the incidence and severity of natural hazards and to avoid exposure of people, property and economic activities to significant risk from dynamic coastal processes Objective B4.1: Coastal development shall be planned and managed to minimise disruption of dynamic coastal processes and to avoid exposure to significant risk from natural hazards.
Objective B4.2: The potential consequences of climate change and associated sea-level rise shall be taken into account in all coastal planning and management.
Goal B5: Historical and Cultural Heritage To preserve, protect or promote historical and cultural resources and activities of the coast, where appropriate Objective B5.1: Coastal resources of significant historical, archaeological, cultural and scientific value shall be identified and, where appropriate, preserved, protected or promoted.
Objective B5.2: Traditional and cultural activities at the coast shall be given special consideration in coastal planning and management.
THEME C: POLLUTION CONTROL AND WASTE MANAGEMENT A wide variety of point and non-point source pollutants and waste enter coastal ecosystems, largely through the medium of water. This has adverse effects on coastal ecosystems and humans. Fragmented control and authority frustrate effective management. Our coast should be planned and managed to ensure that pollution and waste do not compromise opportunities for sustainable coastal development.
Key Issues
Goal C1: Minimisation and Control To implement pollution control and waste management measures in order to minimise and strictly control discharges into coastal ecosystems Objective C1.1: The discharge of all land-based point and diffuse sources of pollution that are likely to end up in coastal estuaries, ground and surface waters and the air shall be minimised and strictly controlled.
Objective C1.2: The discharge of marine pollutants and waste, especially ship-board waste, marine fuels and ballast waters, into coastal waters shall be minimised and strictly controlled.
Objective C1.3: Adequate and effective anticipatory and reactive measures shall be implemented to reduce the adverse consequences of human-induced coastal pollution disasters and hazards.
Goal C2: Ecosystem Health and Human Uses To ensure that pollution has minimal adverse impact on coastal ecosystems and their ability to support beneficial human uses Objective C2.1: Pollution control and waste management measures shall be implemented to ensure that discharges are kept within the assimilative capacity of coastal ecosystems.
Objective C2.2: The discharge of pollutants and waste into coastal ecosystems shall not be allowed to reach levels that adversely affect human health, use and enjoyment of the coast.
THEME D: NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Coastal ecosystems provide a range of goods and services that make enormous contributions to the economy and sustain coastal communities. Maintaining the capacity of these ecosystems to provide these goods and services is vital. Our coast, and the use of its resources, should be planned and managed to maintain the diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems.
Key Issues
Goal D1: Diversity, Health and Productivity To maintain the diversity, health and productivity of coastal processes and ecosystems Objective D1.1: The natural functioning of coastal processes and the health and productivity of coastal ecosystems shall be maintained.
Objective D1.2: The biological diversity of coastal ecosystems shall be maintained.
[ Top ] Goal D2: Coastal Protected Areas To establish and effectively manage a system of protected areas to maintain the diversity of coastal ecosystems Objective D2.1: An adequate and representative system of protected areas shall be established and managed to maintain the diversity of coastal ecosystems, habitats and species.
Objective D2.2: Coastal protected areas shall be integrated across both the land and sea, where practicable.
Objective D2.3: The intensity of human use in protected areas shall vary according to the appropriate level of protection required to meet ecological objectives, local needs and the compatibility of activities.
Goal D3: Renewable Resource Use To ensure that renewable resource user practices are in accord with the regenerative capacity of coastal ecosystems Objective D3.1: An adequate understanding of the regenerative capacity of coastal ecosystems shall be developed to guide decisions about the appropriate types, scale and rate of renewable resource use.
Objective D3.2: The use of renewable coastal resources shall be guided by the need to optimise the long-term economic viability of the activity.
[ Top ] Goal D4: Non-Renewable Resource Use To use non-renewable coastal resources in a manner that optimises the public interest and retains options for alternative and future uses Objective D4.1: Non-renewable coastal resources shall be used in a manner that retains multiple-use options in the public interest.
Objective D4.2: Non-renewable coastal resources shall be used in a manner that retains options for potential future and sequential uses in the public interest
Goal D5: Rehabilitation To rehabilitate damaged or degraded coastal ecosystems and habitats Objective D5.1: Coastal ecosystems and habitats which are substantially degraded or damaged as a result of past human activities shall be rehabilitated.
Objective D5.2: Coastal developers shall rehabilitate degraded or damaged areas to acceptable standards.
THEME E: GOVERNANCE AND CAPACITY BUILDING Realising the ideal of sustainable coastal development requires meaningful participation by all spheres of government, the private sector and civil society. Our coast should be proactively planned and managed to promote efficient decision-making, co-operation, co-ordination and integration.
Key Issues
Goal E1: Public Participation, Partnerships and Co-responsibility To ensure meaningful public participation and partnerships between the State, the private sector and civil society in order to foster co-responsibility in coastal management Objective E1.1: There shall be meaningful public participation in all coastal planning and management efforts.
Objective E1.2: Organs of State shall actively seek to foster a sense of co-responsibility by developing partnerships with the private sector and civil society in coastal planning and management.
Goal E2: Capacity Building and Coastal Awareness To build the capacity of coastal managers and interested and affected parties to promote coastal awareness and more effective coastal planning and management Objective E2.1: A coastal management awareness, education and training programme shall be developed and implemented for interested and affected parties.
Objective E2.2: Provision shall be made to ensure that there is adequate financial support, suitably trained and experienced staff, and appropriate technical equipment for coastal planning and management.
Objective E2.3: An effective, accessible, co-ordinated national information system shall be designed and maintained to support coastal planning and management efforts.
Goal E3: Efficient, Effective and Co-ordinated Management To promote an efficient, effective, co-operative, co-ordinated and integrated coastal planning and management approach Objective E3.1: A combination of regulatory and economic instruments shall be used to promote more proactive and effective self-regulation and collective responsibility.
Objective E3.2: Coastal planning and management decision-making and approval procedures shall be clarified, speeded up and simplified.
Objective E3.3: Institutional arrangements shall promote dialogue, co-operation, co-ordination and integration.
Objective E3.4: Conflict shall be resolved in a collaborative problem-solving, consensus-building manner.
Goal E4: International Responsibilities To fulfil international and trans-boundary responsibilities, whilst retaining South Africa’s sovereignty Objective E4.1: International protocols and agreements relevant to coastal planning and management shall be fulfilled.
Objective E4.2: Harmonious relations shall be developed with countries whose activities directly or indirectly affect the diversity, health and productivity of South Africa’s coastal ecosystems.
Goal E5: The Process of Coastal Management To conduct coastal planning and management activities in a manner that promotes learning through continuous research, monitoring, review and adaptation Objective E5.1: A Coastal Management Programme shall be developed, implemented and adapted through a process of continuous research, monitoring, review and adaptation.
Objective E5.2: Coastal planning and management activities shall be strategic, focused and practically implementable.
In the next chapter, possible legal and institutional models are proposed for achieving the policy goals and objectives outlined here. Chapter 10Possible Institutional & Legal ArrangementsThis chapter makes proposals for possible institutional and legal arrangements to implement the Coastal Policy. It covers:
INTRODUCTION The previous chapter suggested goals and objectives for coastal management. To achieve such goals and objectives, appropriate institutional and legal arrangements need to be considered and the preferred arrangements put in place. This will require the participation and support of all spheres of Government, the private sector and civil society. Furthermore, it will require the harmonisation of policies and actions of institutions responsible for different aspects of coastal management. The institutional characteristics of our coast vary considerably, especially at the local level. It is often at the local authority level where many day-to-day coastal management responsibilities are carried out. It is important to note that different regions and provinces may need different coastal management arrangements, depending on their particular circumstances and the issues to be addressed.
This chapter explores several possible institutional and legal arrangements for implementing the Coastal Policy. (Note that Chapter 7 explores some of the key questions relating to this subject.) Bear in mind that other models might need to be considered. Elements from different models could also be combined to create an alternative arrangement. You are requested to consider the practical implications of these arrangements and what might work best in your region. The next section outlines factors that should be borne in mind when considering possible arrangements. [ Top ] FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF ARRANGEMENTS The following factors should be taken into account when considering institutional and legislative arrangements for implementing the Coastal Policy:
The next section presents some possible institutional arrangements for implementing the Coastal Policy. POSSIBLE INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS To promote co-ordinated and integrated coastal management, particular attention must be given to identifying the appropriate sphere of Government in which coastal decisions should be made. This task is complicated, but could be facilitated by the rapidly changing socio-political circumstances in South Africa. Of note is the need to devolve power to provincial and local spheres of Government, and the constitutional directives to promote co-operation between spheres of Government and to foster civil society participation in governance. Three distinct arrangements for institutional co-ordination and integration are presented. These arrangements include suggestions for all three spheres of Government, including possible Government-civil society partnerships for local level management.
Note: These models are presented for your consideration. They do not represent final solutions to the challenges of coastal management. Rather, they are a starting point for discussion and further debate. You are encouraged to consider alternative arrangements. A combination of the various elements of these models is possible. Our task is to develop institutional and legal arrangements that will enable us to realise our vision for the coast, and to address the issues of concern, in a practical and realistic manner. Model A – Coastal Commission This model focuses on establishing a national Coastal Commission, and strengthening and formalising coastal management structures in the national, provincial and local spheres of Government (see Figure 25). Coastal Commission
National sphere The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) of national Government would be strengthened.
[ Top ] Provincial sphere
Local sphere
Model B – National and Provincial Coastal Units This model focuses on enhancing and consolidating existing capacity within the DEAT, creating new structures in the provincial sphere, and fostering partnerships between civil society and the local sphere of Government (see Figure 26). Particular attention would be given to improved co-ordination of coastal management activities.
National sphere
Provincial sphere
Local sphere
Model C – Fostering Strategic Alliances Two strategic alliance options are presented in this model. The difference between the options relates to whether or not national departments have an extensive and well-resourced regional presence (see Figure 27). Creating strategic links with other key national departments
[ Top ] National sphere
Provincial sphere
Local sphere
Key Questions
POSSIBLE LEGAL ARRANGEMENTS Two broad alternatives need to be considered. Existing and pending legislation might be used to implement the appropriate institutional arrangements, or new legislation might be necessary. Using Existing and Pending LegislationThe key existing or pending statutes are outlined below.
The Sea Shore Act 21 of 1935
Purpose The Sea Shore Act, although dated, is fundamental to any existing or proposed institutional arrangement for the coast. The Act is built on the fundamental Roman Dutch Law premise that the sea and sea-shore is res publicae, that is, owned by the State (vested in the State President) for the use and benefit of the public. Whilst protecting the public interest of the sea and sea-shore, it does not provide for any form of access rights to the sea-shore from above the high water mark. Furthermore, the Act also states that leases can be entered into for a number of uses of the sea and sea-shore, but that these are to be in the public interest.
Area of Jurisdiction The Act applies only to the sea and sea-shore, that is, the area below the high water mark, up to 12 nautical miles (the territorial waters). As the coastal area is dynamic in nature and continually subject to physical changes, the Act also provides for determining the location of the high water mark.
Lead Agency/Administration With regard to administrative and institutional arrangements, the Act makes provision for the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, or an authorised local authority, to promulgate regulations about the control and use of the sea and sea-shore. It also authorises the levying of fees for specific uses of the area. In 1995 all the key administrative provisions of the Act were assigned to the coastal provinces.
Key Questions
The National Environmental Management Bill of 1998Purpose The Bill seeks to establish a new environmental management policy for South Africa. A major emphasis of the Bill concerns co-operative governance. It seeks to ensure that the environmental rights set out in the Constitution are protected and fulfilled. A number of instruments have been proposed to give effect to this purpose.
[ Top ] Lead Agency/Administration The DEAT is the lead agent responsible for providing Government’s custodianship of the environment. The Bill allows for roles by other sectoral environmental policies at both national and provincial levels of Government.
Principles The foundation of the Bill is a set of principles in Chapter 1, which are to apply throughout South Africa. Examples of such principles are:
Instruments for Implementation
Key Question
The Environment Conservation Act 73 of 1989
Purpose The Act was originally passed to provide a basis for environmental management in South Africa. Many of its provisions are likely to be repealed by the National Environmental Management Bill of 1998. The Bill does not, however, repeal Part V, which provides for the "Control of Activities which may have a Detrimental Effect on the Environment". Part V essentially deals with environmental impact assessment and gives the Minister power to declare either "activities" or "Limited Development Areas".
Lead Agency/Administration The DEAT is the lead agent responsible for providing Government’s custodianship of the environment.
Listed Activities Certain activities may be declared "affected activities" and a report on the impact of the activities on the environment may be required. A list of such activities was promulgated in the Government Gazette in September 1997 and includes a number of activities which are dedicated specifically to the coast, e.g., the construction or upgrading of marinas, harbours and all structures below the high water mark. Other activities are indirectly relevant, e.g., "public and private resorts and association infrastructure". The application of the September 1997 regulations has been delegated to the provinces.
Limited Development Areas Part V also provides for the declaration of Limited Development Areas (Section 23). This allows for the declaration of an area such as the 1 000 m "limited area" envisaged by the 1985 "Wiley Regulations". The effect of such a declaration is that an environmental assessment is required for any new development in such an area. This section has been assigned to the provinces but it has not been put into practice.
Key Questions
Development Facilitation Act 67 of 1995 and Provincial Planning LegislationPurpose The national Development Facilitation Act of 1995 sets out to facilitate and speed up implementation of development programmes and projects in relation to land, and to lay down general principles governing land development in South Africa. Provincial planning and development legislation is currently being formulated in terms of the Development Facilitation Act (although some provinces appear less inclined to apply it than others). Consideration could be given to incorporating coastal planning principles into the general principles provided for in that Act and the related provincial legislation.
[ Top ] Lead Agency/Administration Provincial spatial planning is the responsibility of the respective provinces.
Key Questions
Possible New Coastal Legislation The following options could be considered.
Comprehensive Coastal Management Act This would involve passing a comprehensive Act that would govern all activities in a defined coastal area. A "super coastal agency" could be required to implement such a law. Although such an arrangement has been viewed as appropriate in a number of other countries, its practicality for the current South African context has been seriously questioned and it is likely to enjoy little support amongst Governmental decision-makers.
A Framework Coastal Act The most recent example of a Framework Act is the National Environmental Management Bill. Such an approach focuses on the development of norms to govern the actions of various role players. A Framework Coastal Act could be built, at least in part, around the Sea Shore Act. Such an Act could preserve the philosophy and other positive provisions of the Sea Shore Act, whilst extending it and bringing it into line with contemporary needs and circumstances where necessary. For example, the changes outlined below could be made:
Provincial Coastal Management Acts Coastal provinces could create provincial Coastal Management Acts to reflect their specific management requirements for the coast. These acts could be created with or without a national Coastal Framework Act.
Ensure that other national legislation is more responsive to coastal concerns Specific coastal principles, focus or actions could be added to various national and provincial legislation and policies. Examples include:
[ Top ] Key Questions
The final chapter of this Green Paper outlines the next steps in finalising a Coastal Policy, preferably in the form of a White Paper.
Chapter 11Next StepsThis chapter outlines the next stages of the programme and identifies issues for priority action. It covers:
INTRODUCTIONThis chapter briefly describes the next steps in formulating the Coastal Policy and draws attention to possible priority issues for action in implementing the policy. NEXT STEPS IN POLICY FORMULATION The next steps in formulating the policy are as follows (see Appendix 1 for further details):
September to November 1998 Meetings and workshops will be held in each of the coastal regions during this period. These gatherings will assist interested and affected parties in developing a good working knowledge of the Green Paper. They will also provide opportunities to identify matters of concern in the Green Paper and to suggest alternative policy proposals. These gatherings will seek as much agreement as possible on matters relating to the coastal regions and provinces.
December 1998 to April 1999 The regional and provincial gatherings will provide the basis for preparing a draft national Coastal Policy document that will be distributed before the end of 1998 for public comment. This draft policy will form the basis for a National Policy Event(s) early next year. The event(s) will lay the foundation for preparing a draft White Paper that will be delivered to the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. The policy formulation phase of the Coastal Management Policy Programme will be concluded at the end of April 1999. This will set the scene for Government to adopt and implement a new Coastal Policy in 1999.
PRIORITY ACTIONS FOR POLICY IMPLEMENTATION Once the policy has been formulated, it must be implemented. A draft programme for policy implementation will be prepared by November 1998. Agreement will need to be reached with key stakeholders on the appropriate activities, time-frame and priority actions for such a programme. Every effort will be made to ensure that policy implementation occurs as soon as possible after agreement has been reached on the new Coastal Policy and its implementation programme. Many considerations will need to be addressed in the implementation programme, including:
Given budgetary and capacity limitations, careful consideration will need to be given to priority issues for policy implementation. Your feedback is required on what issues should be prioritised for action in the first phase of policy implementation. The following are examples of possible issues requiring priority action. Strategies consistent with the Coastal Policy could be developed, for example, to:
GLOSSARY
APPENDIX 1: STAGES OF THE COASTAL MANAGEMENT POLICY PROGRAMME
Stage 1: The Issues and the Vision (November 1997 to February 1998) The programme was initiated in May 1997. Extensive consultations took place between November 1997 and February 1998 with stakeholders around our coast. These consultations succeeded in giving interested and affected parties the opportunity to identify issues and articulate a vision for the future of South Africa’s coast. Consultation with stakeholders took place in all regions along the coast. To this end, the coast was divided into thirteen regions, defined on the basis of biophysical and socio-economic factors. The programme team ran 22 workshops along the coast during this stage of the process and involved over 800 people from more than 200 organisations. Numerous additional "one-on-one" meetings were conducted with over 700 people from more than 160 organisations. The issues and visions identified during this stage were outlined in Regional Vision Reports, and in a National Vision Report. The programme’s national Policy Committee drew on the views and aspirations expressed in the Regional Vision Reports in formulating the National Vision.
Stage 2: Generating Policy Options (March to May 1998) During this stage the programme team returned to the stakeholders in the regions. They ran more than 40 workshops and meetings, involving over 500 people from more than 200 organisations. They succeeded in establishing a broad range of policy responses to the issues and visions generated in the previous stage. The meetings and workshops, convened on a sector by sector basis, allowed for a rich debate and expression of sectoral interests. This was a vital component in ensuring a broad base of debate in the process. The sectors included Government, business, labour, community-based organisations, environmental non-governmental organisations and the sport and recreational sector. Further input was obtained from more than 150 written submissions received during this period. In addition, about 15 000 people regularly receive programme newsletters and mailings.
Stage 3: Assessing Policy Options (June 1998 to August 1998) During this stage this Green Paper was drafted. The Project Management Team worked to draw together the results of the two previous stages of public participation, as well as the results of extensive parallel specialist studies. In addition, a Task Team of specialists was convened to assist the drafters through sharing their extensive knowledge and expertise.
Stage 4: Selecting Preferred Policy Options (September 1998 to November 1998) The aim of this stage of the programme is to debate the ideas in the Green Paper. This will be based on wide dissemination of this document, ensuring that there is a good working knowledge of it among a wide range of actors, and conducting meetings and workshops to refine its focus. There will be gatherings and meetings in each of the coastal regions and the four coastal provinces before the end of November 1998. This will provide the basis for preparing a draft Coastal Policy document that will be distributed before the end of 1998. These regional and provincial gatherings will aim to seek as much agreement as possible on a new Coastal Policy for the country.
Stage 5: Draft Policy and Implementation Steps (December 1998 to end April 1999) In this stage, the draft policy will be distributed to the public for further comment. This draft policy will form the basis for a National Policy Event(s) in February 1999. The event(s) will aim to seek as much agreement as possible, and will lay the foundation for the preparation of a draft White Paper that will be delivered to the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. This will set the scene for Government to adopt a widely endorsed policy in 1999. This stage of the programme will also focus on developing and giving effect to recommendations for implementing the policy. [ Top ]
APPENDIX 2: THE INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL SETTING GENERAL MATTERS Many organs of State, non-governmental organisations, groups in civil society and the private sector are involved in one way or another in coastal management. This involvement occurs in terms of a wide range of existing policy and legislation at national, provincial and local levels. Some of the key pieces of existing legislation are outlined in Figure 2 and a more extensive list of applicable laws is contained in Appendix 3.
Defining the coast The term "the coast" does not refer to a distinct area or resource. There is no obvious or readily available definition of the coast, and no corresponding administrative area. Apart from the policy for off-road vehicles, there is currently no law which defines the coast as an area of concern requiring special management attention. Previous efforts to delineate the coast as a 1 000m wide strip of land in which all activities required permit approval, failed. The reasons for this failure included the arbitrary nature of the landward boundary, which did not recognise administrative boundaries or ecological systems and inadequate administrative procedures and capacity to administer the regulations. Although a legal definition of the coast would assist in clarifying administrative responsibilities and co-ordinating coastal management efforts, the approach followed in South Africa must make sense from an ecological, administrative and management perspective. As far as the seaward extent of the coast is concerned, it is possible to choose a number of boundaries, such as the extent of the territorial sea (12 nautical miles) or the Exclusive Economic Zone (200 nautical miles) claimed by South Africa under the Maritime Zones Act. Concerning the landward extent of the coast, there is currently no boundary in place, but the Environment Conservation Act does empower the Minister to declare Limited Development Areas, which could encompass the coast.
Coastal management as a distinct activity Clarifying which activities fall within the ambit of coastal management is a difficult exercise. Many institutions involved with coastal management activities experience difficulty separating coastal management activities from general environmental management activities. Institutions with specific coastal management responsibilities consider coastal management to be a specialised form of environmental management. These responsibilities include the development of Coastal Policy (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, DEAT), preparation of coastal structure plans (coastal Provincial Planning Departments/Directorates), management of protected areas or species (coastal Provincial Nature Conservation Departments, South African National Parks), management of marine pollution (Chief Directorate: Pollution Control, DEAT) and controlling the quality of effluent into rivers and the sea (Department of Water Affairs and Forestry). For most other departments, approaches and tools employed for management in coastal areas do not differ from approaches used in other areas. Subject to a few exceptions, it is generally not easy to separate out coastal legal and institutional factors from laws and institutions that apply to the country as a whole.
Transformation of institutions and laws The extensive law reform process currently occurring in South Africa and the ongoing restructuring of Government departments presents both an opportunity and a constraint for the Coastal Policy process. A significant opportunity exists to place coastal issues on the agenda of current related processes. Examples of these processes are those around Integrated Development Plans (IDPs), Spatial Development Initiatives (SDIs) and new laws, e.g., Provincial Planning and Development Bills. The key constraint is that the Coastal Policy formulation process, which involves extensive participation, will only be completed by early 1999. Unless coastal concerns are highlighted and integrated into related processes, it is likely that new coastal legislation will be reactive and regulatory rather than proactive. The restructuring of Government institutions and the establishment of new structures such as Development Tribunals provide a further opportunity for coastal issues to be integrated into planning, assessment and decision-making procedures currently being established by these institutions.
[ Top ] Enforcement of existing laws and regulations Current procedures for enforcing development control and coastal management are not working effectively. It is questionable whether legal and administrative controls are ever able to change inappropriate activities and behaviour. There are lessons to be learnt from customary law principles and community-based approaches to natural resource management. In addition, the various co-management arrangements to manage coastal resources provide alternative models which appear to be more efficient, equitable and sustainable. The key legislation affecting activities taking place above the high water mark is the body of land-use planning laws administered by the respective planning departments of national Government and the coastal provinces. These laws are in practice more significant than the environmental and nature conservation laws administered by the national and provincial departments of environmental affairs and nature conservation respectively. There is an urgent need for these departments to integrate coastal principles and a requirement to comply with coastal guidelines in the laws and procedures governing their activities. Since the transition to democracy in 1994 there has been some attempt at rationalisation of legislation and devolution of powers relevant to the coast. In the Eastern Cape, however, there is still overlap between the legislation of the old Cape Province, and the former "homelands" of Ciskei and Transkei.
Key deficiencies in legal and institutional arrangements There is widespread acknowledgement by Government, parastatals, and non-governmental organisations involved in coastal management that a number of key deficiencies exist in current legal and institutional arrangements for coastal management. The factors commonly identified are as follows:
Institutional capacity Existing capacity and resources of provincial and local authorities charged with coastal management responsibilities are hopelessly inadequate.
LEGAL SETTING
The new Constitution The new Constitution provides general direction for Government officials carrying out coastal management responsibilities, and there is now widespread responsiveness to public concerns. Overall, the Constitution has brought about a change in management responsibilities from a reactive to a proactive orientation. The Bill of Rights chapter in the Constitution recognises the right of all to a healthy environment, respects private property rights, provides a right to information and provides for greater transparency in administrative decision-making. The chapter also relaxes the locus standi requirement by providing for the enforcement of rights by anyone acting in the public interest, amongst others. It provides for a number of socio-economic rights, including the right to housing, health care, food, water and social security. The new Constitution provides the basic framework for environmental management in South Africa. Marine resources are specifically excluded from the list of matters of concurrent national and provincial jurisdiction, suggesting that jurisdiction over them is national. The coast is not specifically mentioned in either the concurrent or exclusive provincial list (Schedules 4 and 5 of the Constitution), suggesting that it may be national. "Environment" is designated to be a matter of concurrent national and provincial jurisdiction. There is much confusion around the question of the respective responsibilities of national, provincial and local Government for managing the coast and its resources. The Constitution provides for co-operative Government (Chapter 3) by setting out certain "principles of co-operative Government and inter-governmental relations" (Section 41), a relevant sub-section requiring Acts of Parliament to establish and provide for structures and institutions and procedures to promote and facilitate inter-governmental relations (Section 41(2)). In considering a possible Coastal Management Act for South Africa, it must be borne in mind that the Constitution specifically provides for a so-called "override" provision where there is potential conflict between national and provincial Government (Section 146(2)). It provides for national legislation to override provincial legislation where uniformity is required, by establishing norms and standards, frameworks or national policies. This effectively authorises a Framework Coastal Management Act. The Constitution (Chapter 7) emphasises the potential role of local Government in coastal management. It states that one of the objectives of local Government is to promote a safe and healthy environment, and it gives local authorities executive authority with respect to certain matters in Schedules 4 & 5 of the Constitution. Local Government has thus been specifically charged with environmental responsibilities and obligations. Fulfilment of these responsibilities will require local authorities to integrate environmental principles into their activities. It will also require them to implement the suite of environmental policies (including a Coastal Policy) that are currently being formulated. In particular, the relaxation of the locus standi provisions means that the public can take legal action against local Government if they fail to exercise their environmental responsibilities.
[ Top ] Planning and development in the coast The Sea Shore Act recognises the public nature of the sea- shore by vesting ownership of it in the State President, providing that it is inalienable and stipulating that leasing of the area must be for a public purpose. No provision is made, however, for physical access to the sea and sea-shore. Land tenure arrangements are accordingly dramatically different above and below the high water mark where private (or State) and public ownership prevail respectively. Estuaries and rivers will tend to be of a public character once the new Water Act comes into effect. As far as the area below the high water mark is concerned, the Sea Shore Act is out of keeping with current constitutional developments and new administrative frameworks. The only legislative attention which has recently been given to the area is the Maritime Zones Act which claims maritime boundaries in accordance with international law. By assigning the majority of the provisions of the Sea Shore Act to the provinces, national Government has in effect "given up" its custodianship role of the area. It is important to note that the recent National Environmental Management Bill specifically endorses the Government’s custodianship of environmental resources. This assignment of powers may result in tensions and conflicts regarding the respective roles of national and provincial Government in administering the Sea Shore Act and other legislation relevant to the coast. Moreover, it is questionable whether such an assignment reflects the spirit of the Constitution’s chapter on co-operative Government. The Coastal Management Sub-Directorate of the DEAT does not have mostly any specific powers under the Sea Shore Act. These powers have been assigned to the coastal provinces. The Coastal Management Sub-Directorate consequently tends to play an advisory role even on major coastal developments. The only legislative measure which the Coastal Management Sub-Directorate has attempted to implement is the declaration of parts of the coast as a Limited Development Area and a policy for the control of off-road vehicle use in the coast. There have been unsatisfactory attempts for over a decade to designate the area immediately landward of the high water mark as a "limited (development) area" under the predecessor to the current Environment Conservation Act. These attempts have failed to have any substantial impact on coastal management efforts. The limited area philosophy has been applied in an ad hoc way in certain areas. For example, some local authority legislation in KwaZulu-Natal has listed certain activities which may impact on the coast as requiring approval of the Local Council prior to proceeding. The limited area philosophy may be complemented by the notion of an Admiralty Reserve, which exists along parts of the coastline in KwaZulu-Natal and Western Cape. The legal status of the Admiralty Reserve and its potential in furthering coastal management are not altogether clear, but are currently being investigated. In September 1997, regulations were passed declaring that certain activities which may have a substantial harmful effect on the environment are subject to environmental impact assessments. Some listed activities are specific to the coast (e.g., constructing harbours) while others are activities carried out in the coast as well as elsewhere. These regulations seek to control undesirable activities, but are contrary in spirit to new policies and laws relevant to land planning and development. The new approach being followed when drafting planning and development legislation is to be more proactive and seek to integrate environmental and community concerns into planning processes, minimising the need for project-specific environmental assessments. The Development Facilitation Act (DFA) and the Local Government Transition Act (LGTA) have fundamentally changed (or are in the process of changing) the legislative and institutional landscape above the high water mark. The DFA provides for general principles for land development and conflict resolution and the establishment of necessary institutions for this purpose, including Development Tribunals. The coastal provinces are in the process of formulating provincial legislation to give effect to these institutions. Coastal local authorities have to have regard for the LGTA, whose purpose is to provide for interim measures for the promotion and restructuring of local Government. The LGTA will eventually be replaced by the Municipal Structures Bill and Provincial Planning and Development Acts. The LGTA provides for Provincial Committees for local Government in the various provinces, forums for negotiating such restructuring, and transitional councils. Central to coastal management is the obligation for local authorities to develop IDPs under the LGTA. An IDP is a plan aimed at integrated development and management of the area of jurisdiction of the municipality concerned. Coastal requirements are not specifically referred to, but IDPs aim to take into account the Land Development Objectives required by the DFA. The process of drawing up IDPs has been initiated in some coastal local authorities. The Environmental Laws Rationalisation Act (51 of 1997) amends and extends certain previously "South African" legislation (including the Sea Shore Act and the Sea Birds and Seals Protection Act) to the former "homeland" areas. It does not specifically repeal previous legislation applicable in the "homelands", thereby adding to the duplication and confusion which currently exists. Planning law at provincial level is generally in a state of flux. All four coastal provinces are in the process of developing their respective Planning and Development Bills to replace the pre-1994 planning ordinances. A new planning hierarchy is accordingly emerging.
Sensitive areas, islands and protected area legislation Protected area legislation is found at national, provincial and local authority levels. Certain international conventions are also relevant , for example, the Ramsar Convention on wetlands. The legislation is diffuse and uncoordinated and appears not to have been formulated in terms of any overall vision or plan. The legal status and administration of estuaries is not clear. The Lake Areas Development Act (39 of 1975) has never been effectively applied and is currently being revised. The Prince Edward Island Act applies to that island as well as Marion Island, but is outdated and needs revision.
Resource utilisation and conservation A general characteristic is that specific resources have specific Acts dedicated to them (e.g., the Sea Fishery Act is applicable to marine fisheries, the Forestry Act to coastal forests, and so on). There are few mechanisms for co-ordinating the exploitation of these resources. A welcome feature is that the National Water Act specifically defines and provides for "coastal marine waters" and provides for integrated catchment management. A new Forest Bill is currently being drafted but it is not known whether it will specifically provide for coastal forests. A parastatal, SAFCOL, has been formed to take over all commercial plantations. Indigenous forests (including coastal forests) will remain with the DWAF and Provincial Environment and Conservation Departments. With regard to marine fisheries, the DEAT produced a White Paper on Marine Living Resources in 1997 and a Marine Living Resources Act was passed in 1998. The Coastal Management Policy Programme (CMPP) could not make much impact on this initiative because of the late stage of the process. There are, however, areas of mutual interest to both policies and efforts must be made to ensure that the Coastal Policy is consistent with and supports the relevant provisions of the Act. Should the CMPP result in policy objectives which contradict the Act, negotiations between the relevant role-players should take place and appropriate amendments made. With regard to fauna and flora, provincial nature conservation legislation is likely to be rewritten to take into account the new provincial dispensation and the re-incorporation of the previous coastal "homelands" in KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape. The extraction of mineral resources has been specifically excluded from the list of affected activities under the September 1997 regulations on environmental impact assessments. Minerals extraction has a major impact in the coast, but mining legislation (the Minerals Act) and administration have remained outside moves towards integrated environmental management. This sectoral attitude may frustrate attempts to require all Government departments to implement the Coastal Policy. In 1996 South Africa ratified the Biodiversity Convention, which has important implications for the conservation of coastal and marine biodiversity. No legislative initiatives have as yet been undertaken in this regard. With regard to cultural and historical resources, e.g., shipwrecks, the National Monuments Act is likely to be replaced by the Draft Heritage Bill. Provincial Councils will be given more authority over cultural resources. The Communal Property Association Act makes provision for communities to form a legal entity in order to acquire, hold or manage property on a co-operative basis. This legislation is relatively new, but may provide opportunities for sections of coastal land to be allocated and managed by a group of people. The absence of any environmental criteria for allocation or management of land in terms of this Act has implications for implementing a Coastal Policy in such areas.
Legislation pertinent to pollution of marine and coastal waters The numerous and varied Acts which apply to coastal and marine pollution (see Appendix 3) are administered by a number of Government departments. This includes the Department of Transport — DOT (while a potential pollutant is on board a vessel), the DEAT (when the marine or coastal environment is polluted), the DWAF (land-based sources), the Department of Minerals & Energy — DME (off-shore mining activity) and the Department of Health — DOH (international health regulations). The South African Maritime Safety Authority Act (5 of 1998) provides for a statutory authority which will take over many Department of Transport functions.
INSTITUTIONAL SETTING
[ Top ] Implications of current national institutional arrangements for coastal management Numerous national Government departments are involved in aspects of managing the coast and its resources in the course of carrying out their functions. Except for the DEAT, DWAF and to a lesser extent the DME, most national Government departments do not consider coastal management responsibilities to fall within the ambit of their work. The fact that activities they manage are located in the coastal environment or may affect the coast, does not alter their management approach. As a result of the absence of policy guidelines, coastal framework legislation and a single co-ordinating body to provide direction and guidance, there is administrative confusion and inefficiency, duplication of efforts, gaps in management and an uncoordinated approach to coastal management. In general, Government departments at all levels identify the DEAT as the lead authority responsible for coastal management. The Coastal Management Sub-Directorate of the DEAT is located in Cape Town, and there are no offices dedicated to coastal management in other coastal provinces. The Sub-Directorate has responsibility for a wide range of coastal management-related activities. Although its prime concern is policy formulation and co-ordination of coastal activities, much time and effort is spent providing comment on the array of new draft policies and legislation and responding to public queries to the Minister. The Sub-Directorate has limited legislative powers as they have mostly been assigned to the coastal provinces. The Coastal Sub-directorate has extensive responsibilities in the field of coastal management. In order for it to fulfil its responsibilities, however, additional staff and resources at national and provincial level will be required. Alternatively, certain functions will need to be taken on by other departments and authorities at the provincial and local level. The only resource over which the DEAT has substantive control is marine fisheries. This domain is outside the ambit of the Coastal Management Policy Programme because a new Marine Living Resources Policy has been prepared (White Paper and Marine Living Resources Act), setting out the institutional arrangements for access to and management of marine resources. Other coastal resources, such as coastal forests, water, minerals and agriculture, are administered by the DWAF, DME and the Departments of Land Affairs and Agriculture respectively. Although management of these resources has been undertaken on a sectoral basis, the establishment of inter-departmental committees and working groups has occurred to some extent. Pollution of coastal waters falls under the jurisdiction of different national departments (DOT, Sea Fisheries Institute, of DEAT, DWAF and DME, as well as parastatals such as Portnet). This fragmentation of pollution control across different pieces of legislation and within different departments is considered a key weakness. In this respect, the Marine Pollution Division within DEAT advocates the need for a lead agency for pollution control and management in order to streamline activities and to improve co-ordination and management. For example, the entire water quality management function should be located within DEAT rather than being partially located in DWAF. Its main functions should be policy formulation and the setting of national standards, with implementation occurring at provincial level. A further activity of a centralised pollution control unit would be the establishment and maintenance of a database. Some effort has been made to rationalise pollution control generally by establishing a Pollution Control Chief Directorate within the DEAT. This Chief Directorate has taken over air pollution from the DOH, and is in the process of taking over marine pollution functions from the Chief Directorate: Sea Fisheries of DEAT. Most of the legislation governing land-use planning, economic development and resource use and exploitation in the coast is administered by other national and provincial departments. The DEAT’s decision-making powers regarding coastal activities are thus fairly limited. The new Water Resources Act makes provision for the establishment of catchment management agencies and local level water committees. It also adopts an holistic and integrated approach to catchment management. The structural model proposed for catchment management could be adapted for coastal and estuarine areas. These new structures also have the potential to play a positive role in co-ordinating management activities which influence the coast.
Implications of current provincial institutional arrangements for coastal management There is no single provincial Government department responsible for coastal management. Ongoing reshuffling of the provincial authorities charged with environmental management functions and a reduction in annual budgets suggest that environmental authorities do not enjoy a high status. This has hindered the development of proactive and efficient provincial environmental management authorities and explains the lack of clear procedures and systems for assessing, monitoring and managing activities which affect the coast. Environmental and nature conservation directorates and sub-directorates within different provincial departments are involved in various aspects of resource management and protection, and provide input to planning and development processes. With limited resources and personnel available for environmental management generally in the provinces, the separation of the functions of nature conservation and environment adds to administrative inefficiency and delays. In all the provinces, Government departments involved in land-use planning and development control are key players in coastal management. The promulgation of the DFA, and the LGTA, and new provincial planning legislation have, however, resulted in much confusion amongst officials charged with planning responsibilities. These legislative changes have led to the dismantling of various planning boards and the establishment of new institutions. It will take some time before the procedures, assessment criteria and modus operandi of these new institutions are operational. In the meantime, this lack of clarity regarding planning and regulatory procedures provides a gap for inappropriate development to take place in sensitive coastal areas. There is a lack of co-ordination amongst Government departments involved with aspects of managing the coast and its resources. In addition, the restructuring process has in some instances led to overlaps and contradictions in management responsibilities. For example, development activities in coastal dune areas are controlled by a number of different departments, depending on the activity in question. There are various initiatives taking place which have far-reaching implications for the future use and management of the coast. For example, in the Western Cape, the Directorate of Planning in the Department of Housing, Local Government and Planning is in the process of preparing a provincial policy concerning land-use planning in the mainly rural areas of the coast. In KwaZulu-Natal, the Provincial Growth and Development Strategy identified the need to prepare a coastal management plan. This is being co-ordinated by the Department of Local Government and Housing, with input from the Departments of Economic Affairs and Tourism and Traditional and Environmental Affairs. The SDIs of the Department of Trade and Industry, many of which are located in the coast, have strong political support and are more concerned with short-term economic goals than long-term sustainability issues. It is of concern that these coastal initiatives are taking place in the absence of national policy guidelines or framework legislation which would provide direction and ensure conformity with national principles, norms and approaches. Concurrent functions set out in Schedule 4 of the Constitution are not clearly understood on the ground and may not be practical to administer. While certain environmental functions such as approval of environmental impact assessments, environmental management plan reports and waste management have been delegated to provincial level, many proposals are still assessed from a purely nature conservation perspective. Co-ordination and communication between DEAT and other national and provincial environmental departments is considered inadequate. Although the Minister and Provincial Executive Councils (MinMEC) provide a forum to discuss environmental matters in general, coastal management issues are only one of a number of subjects addressed. The proposal that the ICCOAST Committee be given formal status may provide a forum for enhancing communication between DEAT and other national and provincial departments responsible for coastal management activities. Several new institutions have been created in terms of the new wave of legislation that has been promulgated following the democratic elections in 1994. These include Development Tribunals, District Councils and catchment management agencies. While none of these institutions have coastal issues as a focus, opportunities exist to broaden their scope to consider coastal principles and guidelines when executing their functions. Several provincial inter-departmental committees exist to foster improved communication and co-ordination amongst Government departments on a number of issues. Most of these are informal, however, and meetings take place on an irregular basis. The only existing committee that has a purely coastal focus is the KwaZulu-Natal Coastal Working Group, established to provide inter-departmental liaison on coastal policies and a forum for discussion on spatial planning and development control, as well as information for the public. [ Top ]
Implications of current local Government institutional arrangements for coastal management The role and powers of local Government are set out in section 156 of the Constitution and are further defined and elaborated on in the LGTA and the White Paper on Local Government (1998). The duties and powers of local Government are wide-ranging. Of particular relevance to the Coastal Management Policy Programme are those relating to strategic planning through IDPs, setting Land Development Objectives in terms of the DFA, service delivery and addressing the needs of the poor. Clearly, local authorities have wide-ranging functions and decision-making powers. Execution of these functions in coastal areas could alter the nature and character of the coastal environment if activities are undertaken without due consideration of coastal principles and guidelines. Coastal framework legislation is needed to guide and regulate activities undertaken or authorised by local authorities. The Constitution provides for different categories of local Government. Although District / Regional Councils potentially have an important role to play in coastal management, there are various factors which currently hinder their effectiveness. These factors include the extensive area of coastline under their jurisdiction, their inexperience with coastal and marine matters and legislation, their distance from local concerns, pressure on them to deliver basic needs and limited resources and capacity to meet their many responsibilities. Unless additional staff, training and financial resources are provided, it is likely that these councils will not be able to fulfil their responsibilities and that decisions will be guided by short-term economic goals rather than long-term considerations of sustainability. In the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal, proposals are under discussion to establish a lower level institution to deal with resource use and land development issues in coastal areas. The legal status and exact responsibilities of these proposed coastal development authorities is, however, unclear. Institutional arrangements for local Government are still in a state of flux. The powers and functions of local Government have been generally defined in the Constitution and specific tasks have been assigned to them in terms of the LGTA and DFA. But the exact functions and responsibilities of each sphere of Government and the relationship between national, provincial and local spheres of Government is still in the process of being clarified. The White Paper on Local Government, released in March 1998, suggests that further restructuring of local Government will occur. Alternative models for the different categories of local Government are still being investigated and assessed. One possible scenario is that urban municipalities outside of metropolitan areas could be amalgamated with their rural counterparts. Because of this lack of clarity regarding local level institutions, proposed institutional arrangements for local Government’s role in coastal management activities may not be appropriate or feasible when local Government restructuring is finalised. The roles and responsibilities of local Government are extremely wide-ranging, including the provision of services, promotion of economic development and ensuring a healthy and safe environment. The formulation of land-use plans and IDPs is of critical importance to coastal management efforts. The recognition of coastal principles and issues in the formulation of these plans is important to ensure that coastal features, systems and assets are not degraded. The current ambiguity over the role of traditional leaders in elected local Government structures is an issue of concern in the coastal management arena, particularly in remote, under-developed rural coastal areas. Here unscrupulous developers and entrepreneurs are by-passing existing procedures to deal directly with traditional authorities on land and development matters. The White Paper on Local Government explores the strengths and weaknesses of different models of transitional local Government. It proposes different models for different categories, recognising the importance of assigning adequate powers for local structures to fulfil their responsibilities. The important role of traditional leadership is recognised and a co-operative model of governance is proposed. The White Paper establishes the basis for a new developmental local Government system, which is motivated and capacitated to fulfil its responsibilities. Implicit in this mandate is the requirement of local Government to balance local economic development needs with long-term environmental sustainability considerations. Although the philosophy of delegating more responsibility and power to lower tiers of Government is generally supported, this approach must be accompanied by increased resources, capacity building and skills training. Of concern is the limited environmental capacity at local Government level to meet these responsibilities. It is unlikely that local Government will be able to comply with and implement the requirements of a new Coastal Policy, unless there is support from higher levels of Government. One way of enhancing the capacity of local Government to fulfil its coastal management responsibilities is to encourage the involvement of civil society and community organisations with an interest in coastal resources and issues. Although many local authorities recognise their limited capacity to implement policy, they have acquired considerable practical experience of local coastal matters, and could make a major contribution to ensuring that implementable policy is developed. Except for the larger municipalities, few local authorities have staff dedicated to coastal management. The integration of environmental considerations in the course of executing their functions therefore depends to a large extent on the capacity of individuals to identify potential environmental concerns and address them. Increasingly, local authorities are appointing consultants to assist with developing policies and plans, assuming that environmental issues will also be addressed by them in these processes. [ Top ]
Implications of current capacity within Government to manage the coast Government departments at all three levels charged with environmental management responsibilities have a relatively lowly status and are under-resourced and under-staffed. This view is supported by a recent study to assess the capacity of provincial Government in environmental management. The study concludes that the provincial environmental departments lack the necessary human and financial resources and the expertise to execute environmental management functions. In addition, most provinces are experiencing annual cuts in budgets allocated for environmental management and nature conservation. Of concern is that in all provinces, the vast majority of the budget is allocated to nature conservation functions and very little is allocated to general environmental management (e.g., in the Western Cape 1996/1997 financial year, R43 million was allocated to nature conservation and R1 million to environmental management). Yet the responsibilities of provincial environmental authorities are increasing. In terms of the new environmental impact assessment regulations, for example, the provincial environmental authority will in most instances act as the lead authority and will ensure compliance with regulations. At present, these regulations are one of the few tools available to regulate development in the coast. Although the regulations are being phased in, indications are that there is insufficient capacity within the provincial environmental authorities to fulfil this responsibility. The situation in the Eastern Cape is particularly difficult. The rationalisation of three different administrations (the old Cape Provincial Administration, Ciskei and Transkei) into one department has resulted in most expertise being located in the western half of the province and a lack of qualified staff in the eastern half. A further issue of concern is the lack of capacity building to support affirmative action appointments. Aside from the provincial environmental authorities, few other departments have staff dedicated to environmental matters, and none have staff dedicated to coastal matters. Most local authorities do not separate coastal management functions from environmental management generally. In most instances, except in the larger municipalities, capacity and resources to deal with environmental management are totally inadequate. Local authorities are more concerned with local town planning and economic development issues and ensuring service delivery for the poor than with resource conservation issues. Most authorities feel that the lack of staff and resources result in them playing a reactive rather than proactive role in coastal management. To improve this lack of capacity, local authorities do work in co-operation with other national or statutory bodies which have an interest in or responsibility for coastal management, e.g., the KwaZulu-Natal Conservation Services and South African National Parks. Because of the lack of capacity at all levels of Government to effectively manage the coast and its resources, Government will increasingly need to form partnerships with non-governmental organisations, community-based organisations and other resource user groups to assist in the task of management. Various forms of co-management between community groups and relevant Government departments are already being implemented. An assessment of the conditions under which these co-management systems operate effectively should inform the development of appropriate and feasible legislative and institutional scenarios for implementing the Coastal Policy.
APPENDIX 3: SOME INSTRUMENTS FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF COASTAL POLICY INTRODUCTION Numerous pieces of legislation (Acts, Ordinances and Bills) and policy strategies and instruments (White and Green Papers, spatial planning policies) are relevant to managing the human and natural components of the coast. Some of the key instruments and responsible Government agencies are shown in the Appendix Table 3.1. However, as highlighted in Chapter 7, of this document, legislative and regulatory instruments are seen to be merely as one of many options for coastal management. Other possible instruments for implementation are outlined below.
OTHER POLICY INSTRUMENTS Environmental management in South Africa has been characterised by two distinct features. Firstly, day-to-day management has primarily been undertaken by Government agencies. Secondly, the management style has tended to rely on a regulatory or "command and control" approach. This style of management has often proved neither efficient, nor effective, especially in some coastal areas. The reasons for the perceived inadequacies are many and varied. The lack of resources and limited capacity of coastal managers has made this situation worse. Internationally, there has been a move towards:
The objective of these new approaches is to make environmental management more efficient and effective, especially in the context of increasing stress on limited natural resources and decreasing financial resources available to local and regional managers.
[ Top ] Appendix Table 3.1: Legislative Instruments and Responsible Agencies
THE ACTORS AND ACTIVITIES A range of managers (referred to as actors) is involved in coastal planning and management in a variety of different ways. These actors include:
Actors undertake a range of activities, both formally and informally. The effectiveness of their involvement is highly variable and depends on a range of factors, such as financial and administrative constraints, available human resources, level of skill and training and political will. The coastal management matrix shown below in Appendix Table 3.2 describes some of the existing activities that actors are involved in. It is apparent from the matrix that significant scope exists for other stakeholders, not traditionally involved in coastal management, to play a greater role. For example, the private sector already plays an important role in policy and planning, and could become more involved in development control or resource management functions. Community-based organisations could become involved in resource management, operation and maintenance, or environmental monitoring activities.
Appendix Table 3.2: Present Status of Coastal Management Roles in South Africa
[ Top ] Adapted from: Durban Metropolitan – Open Space System Framework Plan (1998) MANAGEMENT STYLES In the discussion document "National Strategy for Integrated Environmental Management in South Africa (1998)", the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism indicated the need to adapt present management styles to incorporate, where appropriate, various market-based strategies, as a supplement to the existing regulatory approach to management. The environmental management styles indicated below in Appendix Table 3.3, show the range of possible strategies that could be used in different management situations. No single strategy is likely to be effective. Rather a combination of regulatory, incentive-based and information-based strategies should be used. A number of the regulatory and information instruments in Table 3.3 are currently used on a regular basis in South Africa. Market-based incentives for environmental management, while used commonly in various other parts of the world, have not yet been used to any great extent in this country. In subsequent phases of the Coastal Management Policy Programme, work on economic incentives for coastal management will be developed in greater detail. Examples of some possible new responses to existing coastal management issues are given in Appendix Table 3.4.
Appendix Table 3.3: Environmental Management Styles
[ Top ] Appendix Table 3.4: Examples of Responses to Coastal Management Issues
APPENDIX 4: CONTRIBUTING SPECIALISTS SPECIALIST STUDIES Characterisation and assessment
Author - National overview report
Authors - West Coast reports
Authors - South Coast reports
Authors- East Coast reports
Editors - East Coast reports
Author - Prince Edward Island report
Internal reviewers
Artists
Independent review panel
Lessons learned
Co-ordinators:
Internal reviewer:
International team
Independent review panel
Legal and institutional
Contributors
Internal reviewers
Written comments
External review panel
Related initiatives
Independent review panel
Value of the Coast
SPECIALIST TASK TEAM
COMMENTS ON DRAFT GREEN PAPER In addition to comments from the Policy Committee, Regional Managers, Project Management Team and Specialist Task Team the following specialists also provided comment on drafts of this document:
RECOMMENDED READINGS
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