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South Africa did not actively participate in the Convention negotiations and has largely been isolated from discussions around its issues. Many of these issues are, however, of importance for the country's economic development, and have considerable implications for the future use and conservation of our natural resources. As a Party to the treaty, South Africa is obliged to ensure that the agreement is implemented in accordance with its objectives. The state is also required to:
South Africa's response to this requirement is contained within this document, which articulates the country's policy and strategy towards achieving the objectives of the Convention. Once this Green Paper has been publicly reviewed, it will form the basis for a White Paper, which will be submitted to Parliament for approval in early 1997. After this it will become official government policy. [ Top ] 1.2. South Africa's Biodiversity: A Living Heritage1.2.1. A country of remarkable diversity South Africa's unique biological diversity - the variety of genes, species,ecosystems and ecological processes occurring in the country - is an assetof international, national and local value and significance. Her riversand wetlands, mountains and plains, estuaries and oceans, and magnificentcoastline and landscapes contain an exceptionally rich and varied arrayof life forms which are integral to the existence of all South Africans,and upon which the national economy is fundamentally dependent. The remarkable richness of South Africa's biodiversity is largely as a result of the mix of tropical and temperate climates and habitats occurring in the country. Indeed, South Africa ranks as the third most biologically diverse country in the world1, and as such is of major global importance for biodiversity conservation (see Table I). This fact is mostly attributable to the extraordinary plant richness contained within the country: some 18,000 vascular plant species occur within our boundaries, of which 80 per cent occur nowhere else. Furthermore, South Africa is the only country on Earth to have within its national confines an entire plant kingdom - one of just six in the world. Known as the Cape Floral Kingdom, this area has the highest recorded species diversity for any similar sized temperate or tropical region in the world. The Cape Floral Kingdom is the world's 'hottest hotspot' of global conservation concern, a term used to refer to areas where high levels of species richness, endemism as well as threat coincide. Other biomes (or ecological units) in the country are also of global conservation significance, for example one third of the world's succulent plant species are found in South Africa. In addition to this extraordinarily varied plant life, a wealth of animal life exists in the region, both in numbers and variety. South Africa hosts an estimated 5.8% of the world's total of mammal species; 8% of bird species; 4.6% of the global diversity of reptile species; 16% of the total number of marine fish species in the world; and 5.5% of the world's described insect species. In terms of the number of mammal, bird, reptile and amphibian species which occur only in this country ('endemics'), South Africa is the 24th richest country in the world, and the 5th richest in Africa. South Africa's marine life is similarly diverse, partly as a result of the extreme contrast between the water masses on the East and West Coast. Three water masses - the cold Benguela current, the warm Agulhas current, and oceanic water - make the region one of the most oceanographically heterogeneous in the world. Over 10,000 plant and animal species - almost 15% of the coastal species known worldwide - are found in South African waters, with about 12% of these occurring nowhere else. Table I. Species Richness of South African Taxa2
[ Top ] The statistics in Table I exclude many groups such as fungi and different types of microorganisms, and only reflect the numbers of some described species. Obtaining a more precise estimate is difficult, as no-one really knows the exact number of species that exist in South Africa. Nonetheless, we do know that species richness is extremely high. Estimates of total species numbers in the country vary from 250,000 to 1,000,000, a richness which is reflected in the vast array of ways in which our biological resources are used by rural and urban people, as well as by industrial concerns. 1.2.2. Biodiversity under threat Human activity has been changing South African ecosystems for thousands of years, but the pace and extent of change has increased rapidly since European settlement in 1652. Present estimates suggest that at least 25% of the land has been transformed - largely by agriculture, urban developments, afforestation, mining, and dams. In addition to habitat loss and degradation, the overexploitation of certain species, the introduction of exotic species, and the pollution or toxification of the soil, water and atmosphere have had major effects on South Africa's terrestrial, freshwater and marine biodiversity. Already 2,527 (12%) of South Africa's plant species, 102 (14%) of bird, 72 (24%) of reptile, 17 (18%) of amphibian, 90 (37%) of mammal, and 22% of butterfly species are listed as threatened in the South African Red Data Books, which indicate the conservation status of threatened species and ecosystems. In addition, many important ecosystems have been degraded, and ecological processes impaired. Trends indicate that this situation is not improving. Unless we act fast and effectively, much biodiversity, including the life-support systems upon which we rely, will soon be lost. 1.2.3. The benefits of conserving biodiversity What will happen if we do not take immediate action? We will undermine the natural resource base upon which people depend; we will foreclose existing and future economic opportunities of using biodiversity; and we will jeopardise ecological processes which are necessary to keep our country fit for life. Benefits derived from species harvested in the wild. The benefits of conserving biodiversity are numerous. A large proportion of South Africa's population are directly dependent upon biological resources for subsistence purposes, including the gathering, harvesting or hunting of animals and plants for food, medicine, shelter, fuel, building materials, and trade. The use of biological resources thus provides an important buffer against poverty, as well as opportunities for self-employment in the informal sector. Several industries are also directly dependent upon the use of local species for economic gain. For example, the South African fishing, hunting, wildflower, horticulture, natural product and wood-harvesting industries are all, to varying extents, reliant upon species harvested from the wild. Benefits derived from the direct use of ecosystems. But benefits arising from the conservation of South Africa's biodiversity are not only restricted to the direct use of species. South African ecosystems are directly used for grazing, croplands, mining, recreation and tourism. If such resources are not adequately conserved, we run the risk of losing the economic benefits gleaned from their use, and of foreclosing options for their use by future generations. Benefits derived from ecological services. One of most fundamental benefits of conserving biodiversity lies in the ecological services which it provides. These are essential to fulfilling human needs as well as those of all life on Earth. They include:
[ Top ] Enriching our cultural diversity. Benefits from conserving biodiversity go beyond material rewards. Through the use and appreciation of South Africa's biological diversity, a rich cultural and traditional knowledge and deep attachment to the country's natural heritage and beauty have developed amongst South Africa's people. In the words of President Nelson Mandela,
Inauguration Speech, 12 May 1994 Footnotes: 1This is based upon an index
derived by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, which has calculated an overall
diversity index based on species richness for vertebrates and higher plants and richness
in endemics. Source: World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1992, Development of a
National Biodiversity Index - A discussion paper. 1.3. The History of Biodiversity Conservation in South Africa1.3.1. Terrestrial conservation For many centuries, conservation has been practised by the peoples of South Africa, evidence suggesting the application of elaborate natural resource management systems by indigenous African people such as the San, Khoi and Nguni prior to the country's colonisation. Because most traditional African societies were for the most part dependent upon natural resources, including the wildlife that surrounded them, political systems generally included a set of rules and procedures designed to regulate the use of natural resources. Examples include the setting aside of hunting preserves for Zulu royalty, soil conservation methods of the BaTswana people, and totemic protection among people such as the BaSotho. A rich folklore reflected the close relationship between traditional societies and nature, and linked people to the environment through an ethic which was strongly spiritual and cultural. These systems changed substantially with the colonisation of South Africa, and in particular with the intensification of hunting activities by European settlers, the acquisition of guns by local people, and the ranching of cattle, sheep and goats. In a response to diminishing resources, a number of placaaten were promulgated by Jan van Riebeeck shortly after colonisation to protect gardens, lands, and trees from destruction, and the natural resources upon which the Dutch East India Company depended. The first official protected areas in South Africa were the forest reserves of Knysna and Tsitsikamma, proclaimed in terms of the Cape Forest Act of 1888. This was followed by the establishment of forest services in Natal in 1891, and in the Orange Free State and Transvaal by 1903. Also established during this period were a number of game reserves, although the main objective of such areas was to serve as state game-farming enterprises for hunting. After Union in 1910 the central government assumed conservation responsibility for forestry, inland waters, islands and the sea-shore, and in 1926 the first National Parks Act was promulgated. [ Top ] After Union, and indeed up until recent times, influential lobbies continued to secure additional areas and stronger legislation for protected areas. However, despite the fact that nature conservation legislation continued to grow, this was not matched by achieving the satisfactory conservation of biodiversity outside of protected areas. Moreover, the establishment of protected areas was often accompanied by forced removals and resource dispossession among black people. The dominant approach prevailing during this period was that protected areas ought to be "pristine", fenced-off areas. Such approaches have resulted in the widely held perception that protected areas are playgrounds for a privileged elite, and that biodiversity conservation is exclusive and irrelevant to the majority of South Africa's people. Despite this history, there is little doubt that South Africa, and those charged with managing biodiversity, have made remarkable achievements towards achieving the conservation of our natural heritage. Indeed, South Africa is globally renowned for its nature conservation practices, a reputation it has gained primarily through the well developed system of protected areas in the country, and its efforts towards conserving threatened species. In this regard, past government policies have been extremely supportive of biodiversity conservation and developing the scientific capacity to manage biological resources. 1.3.2. Marine conservation South Africa also has a long history of managing its marine resources, possibly being initiated by the prehistoric inhabitants of South Africa's coastal regions some one thousand years ago. Its past differs little from patterns established in other parts of the world that were settled by European colonists, with utilisation following exploration and discovery of marine resources. Historically, virtually every one of South Africa's marine resources, including seals, whales, rock lobster, and fish such as pilchard, hake, kingklip, and most linefish, has been overexploited at some time. Many remain over-exploited, although when compared to other countries South Africa has a relatively well-managed fishery. Furthermore, several marine protected areas exist, including two of the largest "no take" reserves in the world. As is the case for terrestrial areas, South Africa's marine science community stand at the forefront of many international endeavours, and there has been a long tradition of marine research in the country which was celebrated recently by a centenary event. 1.4. The Scope of Biodiversity Policy in South AfricaThe formulation of a coherent biodiversity policy and strategy for South Africa is long overdue, and takes place at a time in South Africa's history when many other policies of relevance to biodiversity are being developed. In particular, this policy comprises part of the broader context wherein national environmental policy is presently being formulated (the Consultative National Environmental Policy Process or CONNEPP). Other relevant policy processes that are under way include those on land, energy, trade and industry, tourism, science and technology, forestry, water and sanitation, fisheries, integrated pollution control, and coastal zone management. Underpinning all of these initiatives is South Africa's new Constitution which provides within its Bill of Rights that everyone has the right (a) to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being; and (b) to have the environment protected for the benefit of present and future generations. The Constitution accords national and provincial government concurrent legislative competence in terms of most functions of relevance to biodiversity conservation. However, national parks, botanical gardens, and marine resources are an exclusively national competence. In terms of the Constitution, it is also the role of central government to administer international treaties. Thus it is the responsibility of the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism to formulate general policy concerning the conservation and use of biodiversity, the implementation of which will be undertaken by different government institutions at central, provincial, and local levels. [ Top ] 1.5. Major Concerns ExpressedThroughout this consultative process there has been remarkable consensus on the issues needing to be addressed by this policy. In many cases these concerns are not unique to biodiversity and span across the environmental spectrum. For example, the fragmented, polarised, and inefficient administrative and legislative structures created by apartheid resulted in no fewer than 17 government departments having a primary responsibility for nature conservation prior to the April 1994 election. Divided responsibilities, together with a duplication of effort, a profusion of laws, and most importantly a lack of coordination, have been major factors hampering the effective conservation of biodiversity. Aggravating this has been a lack of integration of biodiversity considerations into national decision-making, weak political will with regard to environmental conservation, and the insufficient and declining allocation of resources to conservation. Over and again, the need to link biodiversity conservation to the needs of South Africa's people has been highlighted as a major concern, as well as the importance of integrating conservation into an overall strategy for conserving and using natural resources sustainably. These concerns have been foremost in informing the development of this policy. 1.6. Reader's Guide to the PolicyThe policy which follows is divided into three main sections.
Figure 1. Structure of the Biodiversity Policy and Strategy[ Top ] CHAPTER 2THE VISION, MISSION AND PRINCIPLES GUIDING A BIODIVERSITY POLICY AND STRATEGY FOR SOUTH AFRICA2.1. A Vision for South AfricaA prosperous, environmentally conscious nation, whose people are in harmonious coexistence with the natural environment, and which derives lasting benefits from the conservation and sustainable use of its rich biological diversity. 2.2. The Mission of GovernmentGovernment will strive to conserve South Africa's biological diversity and to thereby maintain ecological processes and systems whilst providing lasting development benefits to the nation through the ecologically sustainable, economically efficient, and socially equitable use of biological resources. 2.3. Guiding PrinciplesIn the context of the Vision and Mission, the following inter-related principles will guide the application, assessment and further development of the biodiversity policy and strategy. 2.3.1. Intrinsic Value. All life forms and ecological systems have intrinsic value. 2.3.2. Duty of Care. All people and organisations have a responsibility to act with care to conserve and avoid negative impacts on biodiversity, and to use biological resources efficiently, equitably and sustainably. 2.3.3. Sustainable Use. The benefits derived from the use of South Africa's biological resources are dependent upon: (a) such resources being used at a rate within their capacity for renewal; (b) maintaining the ecological integrity of the natural systems which produce such resources; (c) minimising or avoiding the risk of irreversible change induced by humans; (d) adequate investments being made to ensure the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity; and (e) avoiding or minimising the adverse impacts of the use of non-renewable resources on biodiversity. 2.3.4. The Fair and Equitable Distribution of Benefits. Benefits arising from the use and development of South Africa's biological resources will be fairly and equitably shared. The rights to use biological resources will be equitably allocated, and will recognise (a) that it may be necessary to limit access in order to achieve conservation and sustainable use; (b) that within the context of sustainable use, the socio-economic upliftment of disadvantaged communities is an important criterion upon which decisions will be based; and (c) that where peoples' historical rights of access to natural resources have been removed this must be reviewed and redressed in line with the other guiding principles. 2.3.5. Full Cost-Benefit Accounting. Decision-makers and consumers of biological resources will be guided by economic approaches which assess the full social and environmental costs and benefits of projects, plans and policies that impact upon biodiversity, and which internalise costs borne to society. These will reflect both the economic loss that results when biodiversity is degraded or lost, as well as the value gained from conserving the resource. Generators of waste will bear the environmental, social and economic costs to society of resulting pollution, and the responsibility for any consequences. [ Top ] 2.3.6. Informed Decision-Making. Decisions relating to the conservation and use of biodiversity in South Africa will be based upon the best applicable knowledge available. In cases where a lack of information is evident, steps will be taken to collect information necessary to assess the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Where appropriate, information necessary to ensure the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity will be readily available in an accessible form. 2.3.7. The Precautionary Principle1. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage to biodiversity, a lack of full scientific certainty will not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent degradation or loss. 2.3.8. Accountability and Transparency. Those making and implementing decisions relating to the conservation and use of biodiversity in South Africa will be accountable to the public for their actions through explicit, justifiable processes. 2.3.9. Subsidiarity. Wherever possible and appropriate, decision-making will be devolved to the lowest competent level. 2.3.10. Participation. Interested and affected individuals and groups will have an opportunity to participate in decisions about the ways in which biological resources are conserved and used. 2.3.11. Recognition and Protection of Traditional and Customary Knowledge, Practices and Cultures. Traditional and customary knowledge, practices and cultures supporting the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity will be recognised, protected, maintained, promoted, and used with the approval and involvement of those who possess this knowledge. Benefits arising from the innovative use of traditional and customary knowledge of biological diversity will be equitably shared with those from whom knowledge has been gleaned. 2.3.12. Coordination and Cooperation. Because biodiversity transcends political, institutional and social boundaries, an enabling framework will be provided for the future coordination and cooperation of biodiversity-related activities in South Africa, in the southern African sub-region, and globally. Coordination will also be ensured between other policies, plans and programmes which have implications for the conservation of biodiversity and use of biological resources. 2.3.13. Integration. The conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity will be integrated strategically at all levels into national, provincial, local and sectoral planning efforts (e.g. forestry, agriculture, fisheries, land reform, industry, education, health, mining, etc.) to implement the goals and objectives of the policy effectively. 2.3.14. Evaluation and Review. The policy will not be an end in itself, but rather part of an iterative process which will be monitored and reviewed regularly. Strategies adopted will be responsive to social, economic and environmental change, as well as to scientific and technological advances, but will have due concern for maintaining continuity. Footnote: 1Extracted from the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development [ Top ] CHAPTER 3A BIODIVERSITY POLICY AND STRATEGY FOR SOUTH AFRICAIntroductionThe South African Government has three overriding priorities:
These priorities, together with the national environmental policy presently being formulated, provide the context within which consideration will be given to achieving the three objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity:
In addition to fulfilling these objectives, Government commits itself to a biodiversity policy and strategy that will promote the reconstruction and development of South Africa through:
This section describes South Africa's plans for meeting a key obligation of the Convention - the conservation of biological diversity. The term conservation has in the past been used broadly to include protection as well as use, maintenance, restoration and enhancement of the natural environment. However, the Convention on Biological Diversity uses conservation in a different way in that it refers both to the "conservation of biological diversity", and the "sustainable use of its components". This reflects the desire of developing countries to underscore the importance of sustainable use. For the purposes of this policy, the language of the Convention has been used, and a separate section, described in Goal 2, articulates a policy and strategy specifically concerning the sustainable use of biological resources, and avoiding or minimising adverse impacts on biodiversity. This section (Goal 1), refers to those aspects of the policy concerning the conservation of biodiversity, both inside and outside of protected areas. It includes measures required to protect, maintain, rehabilitate, restore, and enhance biodiversity and should be read in conjunction with Goal 2. [ Top ] South Africa's approach to conserving its remarkable diversity of landscapes, ecosystems, habitats, populations, species and genes in the country, has six main components:
In pursuing this approach, Government recognises:
1.1. IDENTIFICATIONPolicy objective 1.1Identify important components of biodiversity and threatening processes.Policy and Strategy One of the most fundamental steps towards achieving the goals articulated in this policy requires the identification of important components of biodiversity, and threatening processes. There already exists considerable knowledge in South Africa concerning aspects of the country's biodiversity, but this information needs to be gathered, ordered, and strategically used. Information also exists regarding processes or activities that have adverse impacts on biodiversity, but in many instances this is patchy, inconclusive, and not tailored towards facilitating effective management. To achieve the described objective, Government will take a systematic approach towards the identification of important components of biodiversity and threatening processes, and will focus upon addressing existing gaps in knowledge whilst continuing to support activities relevant to achieving the objective. In particular, Government, in collaboration with relevant interested and affected parties, undertakes to:
[ Top ] 1.2. WILDLIFE CONSERVATIONPolicy objective 1.2Maintain and strengthen existing arrangements to conserve South Africa's indigenous wildlifePolicy and StrategySouth Africa has a substantial body of law to conserve biodiversity, especially within protected areas and for several plant and vertebrate species. However, past approaches to biodiversity conservation have not given adequate attention to the conservation of landscapes and ecosystems outside of protected areas, and have neglected to consider lesser known groups such as invertebrate, fungi, and microorganisms. Through this policy and the introduction of appropriate measures, Government intends to adopt a more holistic approach towards the conservation of biodiversity. The difficulties encountered in enforcing conservation law in South Africa are a matter of great concern. Government supports the coordinated development of a law enforcement strategy, effective deterrents, and the strengthening of required capacity, but will balance this with the provision of incentives to encourage adherence to the law. To achieve the objective, Government, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:
1.3. PROTECTED AREASPolicy objective 1.3.Establish and manage efficiently a representative and effective system of protected areas.[ Top ] Protected areas in South AfricaA "protected area", as defined by the Convention is "a geographically defined area which is designated or regulated and managed to achieve specific conservation objectives". Within this definition, the purposes for which protected areas are managed vary considerably, and different classification systems apply in different countries. South Africa presently contains 21 types of protected areas which can be grouped under six internationally recognised management categories (see Table II). These areas are administered by many different bodies, including the National Parks Board; the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry; the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism; the South African National Defence Force; the National Botanical Institute; provincial conservation agencies; numerous local authorities; and an assortment of private and public landowners who subscribe to various conservation schemes. Ten Acts of Parliament and 13 provincial Ordinances and Acts control protected areas in South Africa (see Table III). Terrestrial protected areasSouth Africa's system of terrestrial protected areas is well developed, and it is in such areas that biodiversity conservation has been focused. The 422 formally protected areas constitute some 6% of the land surface area, and although the extent to which viable populations are conserved in such areas is not known, about 74% of plant, 92% of amphibian and reptile, 97% of bird, and 93% of mammal species of South Africa are estimated to be represented in the present protected area system. There are, however, many gaps, and the existing system does not adequately protect the lowland fynbos, succulent karoo, Nama karoo, highveld grassland, and thicket biomes of South Africa (see Table IV). Moreover, many of the existing protected areas are small, often isolated from one another, and separated by large areas of mostly transformed land. Aggravating this situation is the fact that protected areas have been managed as islands of biodiversity rather than as part of a holistic land-use policy. Of concern is the fact that the existing system has arisen through a largely ad hoc process, rather than being part of a deliberate conservation strategy. WetlandsWetland conservation is extremely poor in South Africa and the majority of wetlands fall outside of protected areas. Exceptions to this include the 12 Ramsar Sites in the country, which have been accorded protected area status in terms of the Ramsar Convention. These total some 231 175 hectares. Marine Protected AreasSeveral marine protected areas are located along South Africa's extensive coastline, representing most marine biogeographic regions, and including two of the largest "no-take" reserves in the world. However, as is the case for terrestrial protected areas, there has been no overall planned development of marine reserves, a large number being either poorly positioned or inadequately policed. Furthermore, existing marine protected areas do not protect the full range of coastal and marine habitats, such as sandy beaches, estuaries, dunes, and different types of rocky shore. In most instances, marine protected areas have been established in order to rebuild fish stocks and improve fishery yield, rather than conserve biodiversity. [ Top ] Table II. Schedule Classification of Terrestrial and Marine Protected Areas
Source: Government Gazette of 9 May 1994, Notice 449. Categories are assigned in accordance with the 1994 IUCN Protected Area Management Categories. Table III. The Management of Protected Areas in South Africa
Note: DEAT refers to the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, and DWAF the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry Table IV. Conservation of South African Biomes[ Top ]
Note: Calculated from data in Vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland, edited by A.B. Low and A.G. Rebelo. Published by the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, January 1996 Policy and Strategy Government recognises that South Africa's protected area system is an asset of unsurpassed value, which in addition to conserving biodiversity generates substantial economic benefits through tourism. Of concern is the fact that neither terrestrial nor marine protected areas in South Africa form part of a planned network. Furthermore, the management of such areas is poorly coordinated between the range of responsible authorities, resulting in variable and often conflicting policies being applied. The need to strengthen and rationalise this system, and so establish an effective, efficient, and representative protected area system is considered by Government to be an issue of primary importance. Several steps have been taken in this regard, notably the establishment of a Committee to coordinate conservation efforts between national and provincial conservation agencies, and the establishment of a Marine Reserve Task Group, under the auspices of the South African Network for Coastal and Oceanographic Research (SANCOR), to develop a revised policy on marine protected areas. Government will build on these initiatives and, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:
[ Top ] 1.4. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ADJACENT TO PROTECTED AREASPolicy objective 1.4Promote socially and ecologically sustainable development in areas adjacent to or within protected areasPolicy and Strategy Urgent attention is required to ensure that biodiversity is conserved not only within protected areas, but across the landscape, and that sustainable development is promoted throughout the country (see Goal 2). However, a special case can be made for paying particular attention to areas adjacent to or within protected areas, given that activities occurring in such areas may be critical to the protected area's success. Furthermore, the ecological landscape is often a continuum between designated protected areas and surrounding regions. The viability of protected areas is thus dependent upon the extent to which such areas are socially, economically, and ecologically integrated into the surrounding region. These issues are especially pertinent to protected areas in South Africa, which fall within some of the most populous and poverty-stricken parts of the country. As protected areas are often centres of economic activity, social and economic conditions within and outside of these areas contrast starkly. These discrepancies are aggravated by the fact that in the past some protected areas were established at severe cost to communities. In the creation of protected areas, many communities were forcibly removed without adequate compensation. Furthermore, a "fences and fines" approach resulted in people being denied access to resources upon which they depended. Aggravating these circumstances is the fact that protected areas have remained inaccessible to the majority of South Africa's people, and are perceived to be playgrounds for a privileged elite, from which few benefits are derived. These imbalances are well recognised, and are in some instances being redressed by conservation agencies. Government will bolster such initiatives, and in collaboration with interested and affected groups will:
1.5. REHABILITATIONPolicy objective 1.5Restore and rehabilitate degraded ecosystems, and strengthen and further develop species recovery plans where practical and where this will make a significant contribution to the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.Rehabilitation efforts in South Africa South Africa's land and seascapes have changed dramatically over the past few centuries, largely through human settlement and associated activities. Often these activities have resulted in the degradation or loss of ecosystems, and in some instances in the extinction of species. Our recent history of apartheid planning led to particularly marked effects in the former homelands, through creating densely populated pockets of land, which are now sites of severe soil erosion, overgrazing and resource depletion. Previous policies also encouraged unsustainable land-use practices by providing subsidies to farmers occupying marginal lands. Over the years there have been various private and public sector efforts to rehabilitate degraded areas, primarily to restore the productivity of agriculturally degraded lands on large commercial farms, but also to rehabilitate previously mined areas. Within protected areas, efforts to reintroduce threatened species and promote their recovery have been considerable, with off-site conservation approaches such as captive breeding and plant propagation being successfully used to increase populations of threatened species. However, to date there has been no overall national approach to rehabilitation which aims to restore ecosystem functioning and biodiversity. [ Top ] Policy and Strategy Government recognises that the rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems in South Africa is a major task, requiring the commitment of significant resources from both national coffers and the private sector. For the purposes of this policy, and within the confines of existing rehabilitation directives, Government will require that rehabilitation actions be prioritised on the basis of the contribution that restored areas can ma ke to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. In particular, rehabilitation actions will not be emphasised to the detriment of achieving Objectives 1.1 and 1.2. Within this context, Government, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:
1.6. HARMFUL ALIEN ORGANISMS AND GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMSPolicy objective 1.6Control the introduction and spread of harmful alien organisms and regulate the risks associated with the use and release of genetically modified organisms[ Top ] Defining the terms Alien organisms are plants, animals and microorganisms which do not naturally occur in an area, and which are deliberately or accidentally introduced by humans to ecosystems outside of their natural range. This may be at a local level, where species are moved from one type of habitat to another, or at a global level, where species are introduced into different continents or regions. Genetically modified organisms are organisms whose genetic makeup has been altered by the insertion or removal of small fragments of DNA in order to create or enhance desirable characteristics. The technique used to do this is called recombinant DNA technology, commonly referred to as modern biotechnology. Alien organisms Many alien plant and animal species have been introduced into South Africa over the years. A large proportion of such introductions have been deliberate, for purposes of agriculture, forestry, or even conservation. Indeed, much of South Africa's agriculture and forestry production depends upon species that originated from other countries. These organisms provide important economic and social benefits, but many have become invasive, causing serious ecosystem degradation, disrupting ecological processes, and resulting in species extinctions and possible reductions in genetic diversity through hybridisation. In the Cape Peninsula, for example, invasive alien plants are chiefly responsible for the highest concentration of threatened taxa in the world. Elsewhere in the country the invasion of water catchment areas by alien plants has been responsible for reducing water availability - a serious concern in a drought-stricken country such as South Africa. Introduced animals have also reduced South Africa's biodiversity, a few examples being the Argentinian ant, the Himalayan thar, the European starling, the house sparrow and the black rat, and on South Africa's islands, house mice, rabbits, and feral domestic cats. Some of the most drastic impacts of invasive animal species have been recorded in South African rivers, where alien fish, and to a lesser extent invertebrate and reptile species, have altered habitats and successfully outcompeted native fauna. Up to 60% of the threatened endemic freshwater fish of South Africa may be threatened by introduced fish species such as trout, carp and bass. Similarly in the marine environment, the accidental introduction of alien species through ballast water or on ship hulls has resulted in a number of alien species occupying our shores and coastal waters, in some instances displacing local species. Genetically modified organisms The use and release of genetically modified organisms, although having social, economic and environmental benefits, can also have adverse impacts on biodiversity, in some cases being similar to those of alien organisms. Many concerns relate to the nature of the risks involved, which are often difficult to predict and determine. The South African biotechnology industry is relatively well-developed and the need to regulate the industry to minimise and avoid adverse impacts is widely recognised However, public knowledge on the issue is scant and there is a crucial need to improve public awareness and open up the issue to a wider debate. [ Top ] Policy and Strategy Government is acutely aware of the adverse impacts of alien organisms on biodiversity and the potential risks associated with the use and release of genetically modified organisms, and is committed to controlling and regulating the introduction and spread of such organisms. Several measures are in place which support this commitment, including extensive legislation, as well as numerous management and research programmes. An RDP project is also underway to clear invasive alien vegetation as part of a water conservation campaign and job-creation scheme. Despite these measures, Government recognises that many past efforts at control have been unsuccessful, a major problem being the fact that responses have been reactive, with actions taken only after invasive alien species have become a problem. This ad hoc approach has not been cost-effective, and has resulted in drastic impacts on biodiversity. To redress this, Government will adopt a proactive and preventative approach to control the introduction and spread of alien organisms, including genetically modified organisms. This approach will take into consideration the need to balance the risks associated with introducing and releasing alien organisms and genetically modified organisms, with the potential social, economic and environmental benefits derived therefrom. To achieve this objective, Government, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:
[ Top ] 1.7. EX-SITU CONSERVATIONPolicy objective 1.7Support, complement and enhance in-situ conservation through strengthening measures for the ex-situ conservation of components of biological diversity.What is ex-situ conservation? Ex-situ conservation concerns the conservation of genetic resources and of wild and domesticated animals, plants, fungi, and microorganisms off-site, or outside of their natural habitats. In contrast, in-situ conservation means the conservation of biodiversity in the wild through the conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats, and the maintenance and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings. Many techniques and facilities are used for ex-situ conservation, including botanical and zoological gardens, nurseries, arboreta, aquaria, herbaria, genebanks, tissue and culture collections, and captive breeding units. Ex-situ conservation in South Africa The responsibility for ex-situ conservation in South Africa lies with a variety of government, parastatal and private concerns. Most gene and seedbanks are held by the Department of Agriculture, and by institutes of the Agricultural Research Council, whose collections comprise both indigenous and foreign material. A genebank is also maintained by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, and a small number of endangered fynbos species are held in collections by the University of Cape Town. Living and dried plant collections are contained in 49 herbaria and 30-40 botanical gardens, managed by the National Botanical Institute and an assortment of universities and local authorities. About twenty zoological gardens exist, the majority of which are privately owned. The National Zoological Gardens, in addition to managing several zoological collections which contain both exotic and indigenous species, operates four captive breeding centres. Policy and Strategy In-situ conservation is recognised by Government to be the cornerstone of its strategy to conserve South Africa's biodiversity, but ex-situ conservation, and the techniques and facilities used for ex-situ conservation, are c | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||